Filling the gap. Human cranial remains from Gombore II (Melka Kunture, Ethiopia; ca. 850 ka) and the origin of Homo heidelbergensis

African archaic humans dated to around 1,0 Ma share morphological affinities with Homo ergaster and appear distinct in cranio-dental morphology from those of the Middle Pleistocene that are referred to Homo heidelbergensis. This observation suggests a taxonomic and phylogenetic discontinuity in Africa that ranges across the Matuyama/Brunhes reversal (780 ka). Yet, the fossil record between roughly 900 and 600 ka is notoriously poor. In this context, the Early Stone Age site of Gombore II, in the Melka Kunture formation (Upper Awash, Ethiopia), provides a privileged case-study. In the Acheulean layer of Gombore II, somewhat more recent than 875±10 ka, two large cranial fragments were discovered in 1973 and 1975 respectively: a partial left parietal (Melka Kunture 1) and a right portion of the frontal bone (Melka Kunture 2), which probably belonged to the same cranium. We present here the first detailed description and computer-assisted reconstruction of the morphology of the cranial vault pertaining to these fossil fragments. Our analysis suggest that the human fossil specimen from Gombore II fills a phenetic gap between Homo ergaster and Homo heidelbergensis. This appears in agreement with the chronology of such a partial cranial vault, which therefore represents at present one of the best available candidates (if any) for the origin of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa

Relazione dose-risposta tra carico di allenamento e prestazione

Studio 1. Lo scopo di questo studio è stato quello di esaminare il profilo del carico di allenamento (TL) di giocatori professionisti di basket di alto livello durante una fase cruciale della stagione competitiva ( prima dei play off scudetto ). I soggetti sono stati otto giocatori di basket professionisti a tempo pieno (età 28 ± 3.6 anni, altezza 199 ± 7.2 centimetri, massa corporea 102 ± 11.5kg, grasso corporeo 10.4 ± 1.5%), nei quali la frequenza cardiaca (FC) è stato registrato nel corso di ciascuna sessione di allenamento e la loro risposta individuale al carico di allenamento è stata monitorata utilizzando il metodo delle session-RPE (200 sessioni di allenamento). E’stata utilizzata l'associazione fra il metodo delle session-RPE e della frequenza cardiaca d’allenamento per valutare la validità di popolazione del metodo delle session-RPE. Relazioni significative sono state osservate tra le session-RPE individuali e tutti i carichi di allenamento individuali basati sulla frequenza cardiaca (valori di r da 0.69 a 0.85; P 0.05). Il basket professionistico maschile di elite impone un grande stress fisiologico e psicologico sui giocatori durante le sessioni di allenamento e le competizioni ufficiali (1-2 per settimana). Di conseguenza è comprensibile l'importanza di un metodo valido e pratico per valutare il TL individuale. In questa ricerca abbiamo dimostrato che le session-RPE possono essere considerate come un metodo attuabile per valutare il TL senza l'uso di strumenti più sofisticati (i.e. cardiofrequenzimetri). Il metodo delle session-RPE ha consentito l'individuazione dei modelli di periodizzazione nella pianificazione settimanale del basket professionistico d'elite durante una fase cruciale della stagione competitiva (modello con 1 vs 2 gare settimanali). Studio 2. L'obiettivo di questo studio è stato quello di sviluppare un metodo per controllare le risposte ai carichi di allenamento (TL), su base individuale, in corridori amatoriali di lunga distanza (LDR), attraverso l’analisi del training impulse (TRIMP). L'ipotesi testata è stata che un TRIMP basato su determinati fattori di ponderazione individuali potrebbe tradursi in una migliore quantificazione delle risposte dell’allenamento e della prestazione in LDR rispetto ai metodi basati su valori medi di gruppo. Le risposte del TL di 8 LDR (età 39.9 ± 6.5 anni) sono state monitorate utilizzando una versione modificata del TRIMP originale, denominato TRIMP individualizzato (TRIMPi) per un periodo di 8 settimane. Il TRIMPi è stato determinato in ciascun LDR utilizzando profili individuali di frequenza cardiaca (FC) e di lattato ematico determinati nel corso di un test incrementale al treadmill. L’allenamento ha prodotto degli effetti sulla prestazione (5 e 10 km corsa) e delle variazioni sulla fitness aerobica sub-massimale (sulla velocità a selezionate concentrazioni di lattato ematico, 2 e 4 mmol∙l-1) valutati prima e alla fine dell’allenamento. La velocità a 2 (+ 21.3 ± 5.2%, P < 0.001) e 4 (+ 10.6 ± 2.4%, P < 0.001) è aumentato in maniera significativa nel post-allenamento. I miglioramenti nella velocità di corsa (%) a 2 mmol∙l-1 (r = 0.87, P = 0.005) e 4 mmol∙l-1 (r = 0.74, P = 0.04) di concentrazione erano significativamente correlati con il TRIMPi settimanale. Nessun correlazione significativa tra le variabili, è stata rilevata quando sono stati utilizzati valori basati sulla media di gruppo. Il TRIMPi era significativamente correlato alla prestazione sui 5000 m (r = -0.77, P = 0.02) e sui 10000 m (r = -0.82, P = 0.01). Il TRIMP individualizzato è un valido strumento per monitorare la fitness (velocità a 2 e 4 mmol∙l-1) e le prestazioni (ad esempio, 5000 10000 m) nel LDRs ed è più utile di metodi basati su valori medi del gruppo. Studio 3. Lo scopo di questa ricerca è stato quello di quantificare la distribuzione dell’intensità dell’ allenamento e i suoi effetti sulla fitness aerobica in calciatori d’elite. 14 calciatori d’elite (età 25 ± 4 anni, altezza 178 ± 7 cm, massa corporea 74 ±8 kg) hanno volontariamente preso parte a questo studio e sono stati osservati durante il periodo precampionato (6 settimane). La fitness aerobica sub-massimale è stata misurata pre e post allenamento con un test incrementale al treadmill per la determinazione della velocità e della FC alle concentrazioni ematiche di lattato a 2 e 4 mmol∙l-1. La frequenza cardiaca dei giocatori è stata registrata in tutto il periodo precampionato. L’intensità dell’allenamento è stata divisa in tre zone: bassa intensità (FC di 4 mmol∙l-1). L’analisi individuale delle 504 sessioni d’allenamento ha mostrato che il 73 ± .5, il 19 ± 2.8 e l’8 ± 1.4% del tempo totale è stato speso rispettivamente a bassa, moderata e elevata intensità (P 90% della FC massima) è relazionato con il cambio nella fitness-aerobica. Questi risultati supportano anche il successo di tutti quei metodi di quantificazione del carico di allenamento aerobico che usano la FC.Study 1. The aim of this study was to examine the training load (TL) profile of professional elite level basketball players during the crucial parts of the competitive season (pre play-off finals). Subjects were eight full-time professional basketball players (age 28±3.6 years, height 199±7.2cm, body mass 102±11.5kg, body fat 10.4±1.5%) which heart rate (HR) was recorded during each training session and their individual response to TL monitored using the session-RPE method (200 training sessions). The association between the Session-RPE method and training HR was used to assess the population validity of the session-RPE method. Significant relationships were observed between individual Session-RPE and all individual HR-based TL (r values from 0.69 to 0.85; P<0.001). Coaches spontaneously provided a tapering phase during the competitive weeks irrespective of the number of games played during it (i.e. one o two games). The individual weekly players’ TL resulted not significantly different from each other (P >0.05). Elite male professional basketball imposes great physiological and psychological stress on players through training sessions and official competitions (1-2 per week). Consequently the importance of a practical and valid method to assess individual TL is warranted. In this research we demonstrated that Session- RPE may be considered as a viable method to asses TL without the use of more sophisticated tools (i.e. HR monitors). The Session-RPE method enabled the detection of periodization patterns in weekly planning in elite professional basketball during crucial part of the competitive season (1 vs 2 weekly fixtures model). Study 2. The aim of this study was to develop a method to monitor responses to training loads (TL) on an individual basis in recreational long-distance runners (LDR) through Training Impulses (TRIMP) analysis. The hypothesis tested was that a TRIMP based on individually determined weighting factors could result in a better quantification of training responses and performance in LDR in comparison to methods based on averaged-based group values. The TL responses of 8 LDR (age 39.9 ± 6.5 years) were monitored using a modified version of the average-based TRIMP, referred to as individualized TRIMP (TRIMPi) over a period of 8 weeks. The TRIMPi was determined in each LDR using individual heart-rate (HR) and lactate profiles determined during an incremental treadmill test. Training induced effects on performance (5 and 10 km race) and changes in sub-maximal aerobic fitness (speeds at selected blood lactate concentration, 2 and 4 mmoll-1) were assessed before and at the end of the training intervention. Speed at 2 mmoll-1 (+21.3 ± 5.2%, p<0.001) and 4 mmoll-1 (+10.6 ± 2.4%, p<0.01) concentrations significantly increased post-training. Improvements in running speed (%) at 2 mmoll-1 (r=0.87; P=0.005) and 4 mmoll-1 (r=0.74, P=0.04) concentrations were significantly related to weekly TRIMPi sum. No significant relationship between any variable was detected when averaged-based group values were used. The TRIMPi was significantly related to 5000 m (r=-0.77; P=0.02) and 10000 m track performance (r =-0.82; P=0.01). Individualized TRIMP is a valid tool in tracking fitness (speed at 2 and 4 mmoll-1) and performance (i.e. 5000 and 10000 m races) in LDRs and is more valuable than methods based on average group values. TRIMPi could predict race performance in LDRs. Study 3. The aim of this paper was to quantify the distribution of training intensities and its effect on aerobic fitness in professional elite soccer players. Fourteen professional soccer players (age 25±4 years, height 178±7 cm, body mass 74±8 kg) volunteered to this study and were observed during the prechampionship training period (6 weeks). Sub-maximal aerobic-fitness was assessed pre and post training with an incremental treadmill test for the determination of speed and heart-rates (HR) at 2 and 4 mmol⋅l-1 blood lactate concentrations. Players’ HRs of all pre-championship training sessions were recorded. Training intensities were categorized using three HR zones: low-intensity (HR 4 mmol•l-1). Analysis of the 504 individual training sessions showed that 73±2.5, 19±2.8 and 8±1.4% of the total training time was spent at low, moderate and high intensity, respectively (P 90% of maximal HR) was related to changes in aerobic-fitness. These results also support the usefulness of the quantification of aerobic training load using HR

The circle of Gánovce. Natural history of an endocast

The natural endocranial cast of Gánovce was found in Slovakia in 1926, and then stored in the National Museum (Národní Muzeum) of Prague. The endocast was extensively studied by Emanuel Vlček (1925-2006), mostly during the 50s and 60s of the past century (e.g., Vlček, 1949, 1953, 1955, 1969), with a large set of analytical tools including radiographic and biochemical sur- veys, and outline shape analysis. He recognized the Neanderthal morphology of the cast, which was dated to 105 ka and which has an estimated volume of 1320cc. In particular, Vlček noticed a similarity with specimens such as Krapina 3, Gibraltar 1 and Saccopastore 1. In fact, these three specimens all display a similar overall cra- nial anatomy, being possibly representatives of an “early and small-brained” Neanderthal morpho- type (Bruner &amp; Manzi, 2006, 2008)

Light Has Been Thrown (on Human Origins): a Brief History of Palaeoanthropology, with Notes on the "Punctuated" Origin of Homo Sapiens

“Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history”: this was the single line that Charles Darwin devoted to human evolution in the Origin of Species (1859). At present, there is a number of extinct species, which we understand  to be related to human evolution, demonstrating that the Darwin’s prediction was correct: light has been thrown, indeed. Moreover, the science of human origin (or palaeoanthropology) appears to be able to shed much light not only on the natural history of humankind, but also on mechanisms and patterns of "evolution" as a general phenomenon. This is of special interest when we focus on data and hypotheses concerning the origin of our own species, Homo sapiens

Measuring the shape. Performance evaluation of a photogrammetry improvement applied to the Neanderthal skull Saccopastore 1

Several digital technologies are nowadays developed and applied to the study of the human fossil record. Here, we present a low-cost hardware implementation of the digital acquisition via photogrammetry, applied to a specimen of paleoanthropological interest: the Neanderthal skull Saccopastore 1. Such implementation has the purpose to semi-automatize the procedures of digital acquisition, by the introduction of an automatically rotating platform users can easily build on their own with minimum costs. We provide all the technical specifications, mostly based on the Arduino UNO™ microcontroller technology, and evaluate the performance and the resolution of the acquisition by comparing it with the CT-scan of the same specimen through the calculation of their shape differences. In our opinion, the replication of the automatic rotating platform, described in this work, may contribute to the improvement of the digital acquisition processes and may represent, in addition, a useful and affordable tool for both research and dissemination

Applicability of a Change of Direction Ability Field Test in Soccer Assistant Referees

The aim of this study was to examine the applicability of a test for change of direction ability (10-8-8-10 test, involving line and sideward sprinting, 36 m) in elite-level soccer assistant referees (ARs). One hundred AR of the first-second and third Italian Championships (ARA-B and ARC, n = 50, respectively) performed the 10-8-8-10 on 3 separate occasions. Twenty AR authorities scored test relevance (1-5 scale, from trivial to very large) for logical validity using a questionnaire. Construct validity was examined comparing ARA-B and ARC for the 10-8-8-10 performance. Short-term reliability was assessed testing a random selection of ARs (n = 64) over 3 separate occasions every other day. Performance in the 10-8-8-10 test was assumed as total coverage time using telemetric photocells. Results showed that the 10-8-8-10 test was perceived as possessing from large (n = 4/20) to very-large (n = 16/20) relevance to AR physical match performance. No significant performance difference was found between competitive levels (p = 0.57). Area under the curve (= 0.49; p = 0.87) showed no significant sensitivity of 10-8-8-10 in detecting competitive-level difference. The intraclass correlation coefficient (n = 64) and typical error of measurement (test 2 vs. 3) values were 0.90 (p < 0.0001) and 0.18 seconds, respectively. This study showed that the 10-8-8-10 test possesses logical validity, good reliability, and it is independent of the competitive level. As such, this original investigation represents the first step in the identification and assessment of a valid and reliable AR change of direction test. Given the strength of our findings, governing bodies should look to integrate the 10-8-8-10 test into the fitness test protocols devised for ARs, with scores 65 9.67 being considered as a starting point for the empirical validation of minimum selection criteria for elite-level ARs

Survival to amputation in pre-antibiotic era: a case study from a Longobard necropolis (6th-8th centuries AD)

The Longobard necropolis of Povegliano Veronese dates from the 6th to the 8th centuries AD. Among the 164 tombs excavated, the skeleton of an older male shows a well-healed amputated right forearm. The orientation of the forearm fracture suggests an angled cut by a single blow. Reasons why a forearm might be amputated include combat, medical intervention, and judicial punishment. As with other amputation cases reported in literature, this one exhibits both healing and osteoblastic response. We argue that the forelimb stump morphology suggests the use of a prosthesis. Moreover, dental modification of RI2 shows considerable wear and smoothing of the occlusal surface, which points to dental use in attaching the prosthesis to the limb. Other indications of how this individual adjusted to his amputated condition includes a slight change in the orientation of the right glenoid fossa surface, and thinning of right humeral cortical bone. This is a remarkable example in which an older male survived the loss of a forelimb in pre-antibiotic era. We link archaeological remains found in the tomb (buckle and knife) with the biological evidence to show how a combined bioarchaeological approach can provide a clearer interpretation of the life history of an individual

Digital reconstruction of the Ceprano calvarium (Italy), and implications for its interpretation

The Ceprano calvarium was discovered in fragments on March 1994 near the town of Ceprano in southern Latium (Italy), embedded in Middle Pleistocene layers. After reconstruction, its morphological features suggests that the specimen belongs to an archaic variant of H. heidelbergensis, representing a proxy for the last common ancestor of the diverging clades that respectively led to H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens. Unfortunately, the calvarium was taphonomically damaged. The postero-lateral vault, in particular, appears deformed and this postmortem damage may have infuenced previous interpretations. Specifcally, there is a depression on the fragmented left parietal, while the right cranial wall is warped and angulated. This deformation afected the shape of the occipital squama, producing an inclination of the transverse occipital torus. In this paper, after X-ray microtomography (μCT) of both the calvarium and several additional fragments, we analyze consistency and pattern of the taphonomic deformation that afected the specimen, before the computer-assisted retrodeformation has been performed; this has also provided the opportunity to reappraise early attempts at restoration. As a result, we ofer a revised interpretation for the Ceprano calvarium’s original shape, now free from the previous uncertainties, along with insight for its complex depositional and taphonomic history