Aldol Reactions - Isotope Effects, Mechanism and Dynamic Effects

The mechanism of three important aldol reactions and a biomimetic transamination is investigated using a combination of experimental kinetic isotope effects (KIEs), standard theoretical calculations and dynamics trajectory simulations. This powerful mechanistic probe is found to be invaluable in understanding intricate details of the mechanism of these reactions. The successful application of variational transition state theory including multidimensional tunneling to theoretically predict isotope effects, described in this dissertation, represents a significant advance in our research methodology. The role of dynamic effects in aldol reactions is examined in great detail. The study of the proline catalyzed aldol reaction has revealed an intriguing new dynamic effect - quasiclassical corner cutting - where reactive trajectories cut the corner between reactant and product valleys and avoid the saddle point. This phenomenon affects the KIEs observed in this reaction in a way that is not predictable by transition state theory. The study of the Roush allylboration of aldehydes presents an example where recrossing affects experimental observations. The comparative study of the allylboration of two electronically different aldehydes, which are predicted to have different amounts of recrossing, suggests a complex interplay of tunneling and recrossing affecting the observed KIEs. The Mukaiyama aldol reaction has been investigated and the results unequivocally rule out the key carbon-carbon bond forming step as rate-limiting. This raises several interesting mechanistic scenarios - an electron transfer mechanism with two different rate-limiting steps for the two components, emerges as the most probable possibility. Finally, labeling studies of the base catalyzed 1,3- proton transfer reaction of fluorinated imines point to a stepwise process involving an azomethine ylide intermediate. It is found that dynamic effects play a role in determining the product ratio in this reaction

Chiral Brønsted Acid-Catalyzed Asymmetric Synthesis of N-Aryl-cis-aziridine Carboxylate Esters

We report a multi-component asymmetric Brønsted acid-catalyzed aza-Darzens reaction which is not limited to specific aromatic or heterocyclic aldehydes. Incorporating alkyl diazoacetates and, important for high ee's, ortho-tert-butoxyaniline our optimized reaction (i.e. solvent, temperature and catalyst study) affords excellent yields (61–98 %) and mostly >90 % optically active cis-aziridines. (+)-Chloramphenicol was generated in 4 steps from commercial starting materials. A tentative mechanism is outlined

Isotope Effects and Heavy-Atom Tunneling in the Roush Allylboration of Aldehydes

Intermolecular ¹³C kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) for the Roush allylboration of <i>p-</i>anisaldehyde were determined using a novel approach. The experimental ¹³C KIEs fit qualitatively with the expected rate-limiting cyclic transition state, but they are far higher than theoretical predictions based on conventional transition state theory. This discrepancy is attributed to a substantial contribution of heavy-atom tunneling to the reaction, and this is supported by multidimensional tunneling calculations that reproduce the observed KIEs

The catalytic mechanism of the Suzuki-Miyaura reaction

Abstract: Experimental and theoretical 13C kinetic isotope effects are utilized to obtain atomistic insight into the catalytic mechanism of the Pd(PPh3)4 catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura reaction of aryl halides and aryl boronic acids. Under catalytic conditions, we establish that oxidative addition of aryl bromides occurs to a 12-electron monoligated palladium complex (Pd(PPh3)). For aryl iodides, the first irreversible step in the catalytic cycle precedes oxidative addition and is shown to be binding of the iodoarene to Pd(PPh3). Our results suggest that the commonly proposed oxidative addition to the 14-electron Pd(PPh3)2 complex can occur only in the presence of excess added ligand or under stoichiometric conditions. The transmetalation step, under catalytic conditions, is shown to proceed via a tetracoordinate boronate (8B4) intermediate with a Pd-O-B linkage

Isotope Effects and Mechanism of the Asymmetric BOROX Brønsted Acid Catalyzed Aziridination Reaction

The mechanism of the chiral VANOL-BOROX Brønsted acid catalyzed aziridination reaction of imines and ethyldiazoacetate has been studied using a combination of experimental kinetic isotope effects and theoretical calculations. A stepwise mechanism where reversible formation of a diazonium ion intermediate precedes rate-limiting ring closure to form the <i>cis-</i>aziridine is implicated. A revised model for the origin of enantio<i>-</i> and diastereoselectivity is proposed based on relative energies of the ring-closing transition structures

Chiral Amino Alcohols via Catalytic Enantioselective Petasis Borono-Mannich Reactions

Chiral amino alcohols are valuable building blocks in the synthesis of drugs, natural products, and chiral ligands used in enantioselective catalysis. The Petasis borono-Mannich reaction is a multicomponent condensation reaction of aldehydes, amines, and boronic acids to afford chiral amines. This report describes a practical, easily scaled, enantioselective Petasis borono-Mannich reaction of glycolaldehyde, with primary or secondary amines, and boronates catalyzed by BINOLderived catalysts to afford chiral 1,2-amino alcohols in high yields and enantioselectivities. The reactions are executed at room temperature in ethanol or trifluorotoluene using commercially available reagents and leverage an inherently attractive feature of the multicomponent reaction; the ability to use amines and boronates that possess a wide range of structural and electronic properties. Computational modeling of the diastereomeric transition states using DFT calculations identified a non-conventional CH…O interaction as a key feature that selectively stabilizes the transition state leading to the major enantiomer. The enantioselective catalytic reaction exemplifies a truly practical multicomponent condensation to afford 1,2-amino alcohols in highly enantioenriched form

Transition-state analysis of Trypanosoma cruzi uridine phosphorylase-catalyzed arsenolysis of uridine

Uridine phosphorylase catalyzes the reversible phosphorolysis of uridine and 2′-deoxyuridine to generate uracil and (2-deoxy)ribose 1-phosphate, an important step in the pyrimidine salvage pathway. The coding sequence annotated as a putative nucleoside phosphorylase in the Trypanosoma cruzi genome was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified to homogeneity, and shown to be a homodimeric uridine phosphorylase, with similar specificity for uridine and 2′-deoxyuridine, and undetectable activity towards thymidine and purine nucleosides. Competitive kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) were measured and corrected for a forward commitment factor using arsenate as the nucleophile. The intrinsic KIEs are: 1′-(14)C = 1.103, 1,3-(15)N(2) = 1.034, 3-(15)N = 1.004, 1-(15)N = 1.030, 1′-(3)H = 1.132, 2′-(2)H = 1.086 and 5′-(3)H(2) = 1.041 for this reaction. Density functional theory was employed to quantitatively interpret the KIEs in terms of transition state structure and geometry. Matching of experimental KIEs to proposed transition state structures suggests an almost synchronous, S(N)2-like transition state model, in which the ribosyl moiety possesses significant bond order to both nucleophile and leaving group. Natural bond orbital analysis allowed a comparison of the charge distribution pattern between the ground state and the transition state model

Recycling Nicotinamide. The Transition-State Structure of Human Nicotinamide Phosphoribosyltransferase

Human nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) replenishes the NAD pool and controls the activities of sirtuins, mono- and poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerases, and NAD nucleosidase. The nature of the enzymatic transition-state (TS) is central to understanding the function of NAMPT. We determined the TS structure for pyrophosphorolysis of nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) from kinetic isotope effects (KIEs). With the natural substrates, NMN and pyrophosphate (PPi), the intrinsic KIEs of [1′-¹⁴C], [1-¹⁵N], [1′-³H], and [2′-³H] are 1.047, 1.029, 1.154, and 1.093, respectively. A unique quantum computational approach was used for TS analysis that included structural elements of the catalytic site. Without constraints (e.g., imposed torsion angles), the theoretical and experimental data are in good agreement. The quantum-mechanical calculations incorporated a crucial catalytic site residue (D313), two magnesium atoms, and coordinated water molecules. The TS model predicts primary ¹⁴C, α-secondary ³H, β-secondary ³H, and primary ¹⁵N KIEs close to the experimental values. The analysis reveals significant ribocation character at the TS. The attacking PPi nucleophile is weakly interacting (<i>r</i>_C–O = 2.60 Å), and the <i>N</i>-ribosidic C1′–N bond is highly elongated at the TS (<i>r</i>_C–N = 2.35 Å), consistent with an A_ND_N mechanism. Together with the crystal structure of the NMN·PPi·Mg₂·enzyme complex, the reaction coordinate is defined. The enzyme holds the nucleophile and leaving group in relatively fixed positions to create a reaction coordinate with C1′-anomeric migration from NAM to the PPi. The TS is reached by a 0.85 Å migration of C1′