Heating efficiency in hydrogen-dominated upper atmospheres

Context. The heating efficiency is defined as the ratio of the net local gas-heating rate to the rate of stellar radiative energy absorption. It plays an important role in thermal-escape processes from the upper atmospheres of planets that are exposed to stellar soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV). Aims. We model the thermal-escape-related heating efficiency of the stellar XUV radiation in the hydrogen-dominated upper atmosphere of the extrasolar gas giant HD 209458b. The model result is then compared with previous thermal-hydrogen-escape studies which assumed heating efficiency values between 10-100%. Methods. The photolytic and electron impact processes in the thermosphere were studied by solving the kinetic Boltzmann equation and applying a Direct Simulation Monte Carlo model. We calculated the energy deposition rates of the stellar XUV flux and that of the accompanying primary photoelectrons that are caused by electron impact processes in the H2 to H transition region in the upper atmosphere. Results. The heating by XUV radiation of hydrogen-dominated upper atmospheres does not reach higher than 20% above the main thermosphere altitude, if the participation of photoelectron impact processes is included. Conclusions. Hydrogen-escape studies from exoplanets that assume heating efficiency values that are >= 20 % probably overestimate the thermal escape or mass-loss rates, while those who assumed values that are < 20% probably produce more realistic atmospheric-escape rates.Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures, accepted to A&

An inversion method for cometary atmospheres

Remote observation of cometary atmospheres produces a measurement of the cometary emissions integrated along the line of sight. This integration is the so-called Abel transform of the local emission rate. The observation is generally interpreted under the hypothesis of spherical symmetry of the coma. Under that hypothesis, the Abel transform can be inverted. We derive a numerical inversion method adapted to cometary atmospheres using both analytical results and least squares fitting techniques. This method, derived under the usual hypothesis of spherical symmetry, allows us to retrieve the radial distribution of the emission rate of any unabsorbed emission, which is the fundamental, physically meaningful quantity governing the observation. A Tikhonov regularization technique is also applied to reduce the possibly deleterious effects of the noise present in the observation and to warrant that the problem remains well posed. Standard error propagation techniques are included in order to estimate the uncertainties affecting the retrieved emission rate. Several theoretical tests of the inversion techniques are carried out to show its validity and robustness. In particular, we show that the Abel inversion of real data is only weakly sensitive to an offset applied to the input flux, which implies that the method, applied to the study of a cometary atmosphere, is only weakly dependent on uncertainties on the sky background which has to be subtracted from the raw observations of the coma. We apply the method to observations of three different comets observed using the TRAPPIST telescope: 103P/ Hartley 2, F6/ Lemmon and A1/ Siding Spring. We show that the method retrieves realistic emission rates, and that characteristic lengths and production rates can be derived from the emission rate for both CN and C2 molecules. We show that the retrieved characteristic lengths can differ from those obtained from a direct least squares fitting over the observed flux of radiation, and that discrepancies can be reconciled for by correcting this flux by an offset (to which the inverse Abel transform is nearly not sensitive). The A1/Siding Spring observations were obtained very shortly after the comet produced an outburst, and we show that the emission rate derived from the observed flux of CN emission at 387 nm and from the C2 emission at 514.1 nm both present an easily-identifiable shoulder that corresponds to the separation between pre- and post-outburst gas. As a general result, we show that diagnosing properties and features of the coma using the emission rate is easier than directly using the observed flux, because the Abel transform produces a smoothing that blurs the signatures left by features present in the coma. We also determine the parameters of a Haser model fitting the inverted data and fitting the line-of-sight integrated observation, for which we provide the exact analytical expression of the line-of-sight integration of the Haser model

Deuterium fractionation on interstellar grains studied with modified rate equations and a Monte Carlo approach

The formation of singly and doubly deuterated isotopomers of formaldehyde and of singly, doubly, and multiply deuterated isotopomers of methanol on interstellar grain surfaces has been studied with a semi-empirical modified rate approach and a Monte Carlo method in the temperature range 10-20 K. Agreement between the results of the two methods is satisfactory for all major and many minor species throughout this range. If gas-phase fractionation can produce a high abundance of atomic deuterium, which then accretes onto grain surfaces, diffusive surface chemistry can produce large abundances of deuterated species, especially at low temperatures and high gas densities. Warming temperatures will then permit these surface species to evaporate into the gas, where they will remain abundant for a considerable period. We calculate that the doubly deuterated molecules CHD2OH and CH2DOD are particularly abundant and should be searched for in the gas phase of protostellar sources. For example, at 10 K and high density, these species can achieve up to 10-20% of the abundance of methanol.Comment: 27 pages, 3 figures, Planetary and Space Science, in pres

Advancing Our Understanding of Martian Proton Aurora through a Coordinated Multi-Model Comparison Campaign

Proton aurora are the most commonly observed yet least studied type of aurora at Mars. In order to better understand the physics and driving processes of Martian proton aurora, we undertake a multi-model comparison campaign. We compare results from four different proton/hydrogen precipitation models with unique abilities to represent Martian proton aurora: Jolitz model (3-D Monte Carlo), Kallio model (3-D Monte Carlo), Bisikalo/Shematovich et al. model (1-D kinetic Monte Carlo), and Gronoff et al. model (1-D kinetic). This campaign is divided into two steps: an inter-model comparison and a data-model comparison. The inter-model comparison entails modeling five different representative cases using similar constraints in order to better understand the capabilities and limitations of each of the models. Through this step we find that the two primary variables affecting proton aurora are the incident solar wind particle flux and velocity. In the data-model comparison, we assess the robustness of each model based on its ability to reproduce a MAVEN/IUVS proton aurora observation. All models are able to effectively simulate the data. Variations in modeled intensity and peak altitude can be attributed to differences in model capabilities/solving techniques and input assumptions (e.g., cross sections, 3-D versus 1-D solvers, and implementation of the relevant physics and processes). The good match between the observations and multiple models gives a measure of confidence that the appropriate physical processes and their associated parameters have been correctly identified and provides insight into the key physics that should be incorporated in future models

Martian dust storm impact on atmospheric H₂O and D/H observed by ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter

Global dust storms on Mars are rare but can affect the Martian atmosphere for several months. They can cause changes in atmospheric dynamics and inflation of the atmosphere, primarily owing to solar heating of the dust. In turn, changes in atmospheric dynamics can affect the distribution of atmospheric water vapour, with potential implications for the atmospheric photochemistry and climate on Mars. Recent observations of the water vapour abundance in the Martian atmosphere during dust storm conditions revealed a high-altitude increase in atmospheric water vapour that was more pronounced at high northern latitudes, as well as a decrease in the water column at low latitudes. Here we present concurrent, high-resolution measurements of dust, water and semiheavy water (HDO) at the onset of a global dust storm, obtained by the NOMAD and ACS instruments onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. We report the vertical distribution of the HDO/H O ratio (D/H) from the planetary boundary layer up to an altitude of 80 kilometres. Our findings suggest that before the onset of the dust storm, HDO abundances were reduced to levels below detectability at altitudes above 40 kilometres. This decrease in HDO coincided with the presence of water-ice clouds. During the storm, an increase in the abundance of H2O and HDO was observed at altitudes between 40 and 80 kilometres. We propose that these increased abundances may be the result of warmer temperatures during the dust storm causing stronger atmospheric circulation and preventing ice cloud formation, which may confine water vapour to lower altitudes through gravitational fall and subsequent sublimation of ice crystals. The observed changes in H2O and HDO abundance occurred within a few days during the development of the dust storm, suggesting a fast impact of dust storms on the Martian atmosphere

No detection of methane on Mars from early ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter observations

The detection of methane on Mars has been interpreted as indicating that geochemical or biotic activities could persist on Mars today. A number of different measurements of methane show evidence of transient, locally elevated methane concentrations and seasonal variations in background methane concentrations. These measurements, however, are difficult to reconcile with our current understanding of the chemistry and physics of the Martian atmosphere, which-given methane's lifetime of several centuries-predicts an even, well mixed distribution of methane. Here we report highly sensitive measurements of the atmosphere of Mars in an attempt to detect methane, using the ACS and NOMAD instruments onboard the ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter from April to August 2018. We did not detect any methane over a range of latitudes in both hemispheres, obtaining an upper limit for methane of about 0.05 parts per billion by volume, which is 10 to 100 times lower than previously reported positive detections. We suggest that reconciliation between the present findings and the background methane concentrations found in the Gale crater would require an unknown process that can rapidly remove or sequester methane from the lower atmosphere before it spreads globally

A model of the Lyman-alpha line profile in the proton aurora

peer reviewedThe Lyman-alpha auroral emission is characterized by a broad line profile whose shape depends on the energy and pitch angle distributions of the initial proton beam, whereas its total brightness reflects the proton energy flux precipitated into the auroral upper atmosphere. Global remote sensing of the proton aurora through its ultraviolet signature makes it is increasingly important to relate the characteristics of the Lyman-alpha emission to the physical properties of the precipitated proton flux. We present a numerical model of proton and hydrogen flux transport and kinetics based on the direct simulation Monte Carlo method. In this approach, all elastic and inelastic processes are stochastically simulated as well as is the production of Lyman-alpha photons with the associated Doppler velocity component. The model also includes collisional, geomagnetic, and geometric spreading of the proton-hydrogen beam. We show that consideration of the stochastic character of the H atom velocity redistribution after collisions produces line profiles different from those obtained in the strictly forward or mean scattering angle approximations previously used in proton transport codes. In particular, the predicted fraction of photons due to backscattered particles is considerably larger when stochastic collision scattering is considered than in the strictly forward or mean scattering angle approximations. In contrast to the median wavelength, the position of the peak in the line profile shows a weak inverse dependence on the proton energy. The efficiency of the Lyman-alpha photon production per unit incident energy flux significantly drops as the mean proton energy increases. The line profile and the amount of blue-shifted (for downward viewing) emission depends in a complex way on the initial energy and pitch angle distribution of the protons. The line profiles expected for the noon cusp and midnight proton aurora are shown to be significantly different