CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE AVAILABILITY OF WATER RESOURCES IN BENIN

It is likely that climate change in the coming decades, even very few, will produce more important impacts on thesocio-economic systems than in the past, due to the growth in world population and the increasing sophistication of technology and development issues (Issa, 1995). According to UNESCO (2006), climate change will be responsible for 20% of the worsening water scarcity in the world. This looming water crisis will be induced by changes in the parameters that determine the water cycle (Totin, 2005). The study is based on analysis of a baseline from which the main meteorological parameters (rainfall, flow, etc.) are projected to 2025 time horizon. It corresponds to the horizon of the prospective study for 2025 in Benin. From these basic parameters, the main elements to characterize water resources (such as infiltration, the volume of water available water bodies, etc.) were determined for each time horizon. Research carried out in different regions of the Benin on climate issues, surface and ground water (Gbatcho 1992; Boko, 1998; Boukari, 1998 Linsoussi, 2000; Sadji, 2004; Amoussou, 2003 and 2005; Totin, 2003 and 2005; Tossa, 2005; Vissin et al., 2006 ; Vissin, 2001 and 2007 ; Alassane and Boukari, 2007; Idiéti, 2009 ; Totin, 2009) attest ruptures occurred in hydro-climatic chronicles during the 1970s and indicate a downward trend in superficial water resource two to four folds greater than that of rainfall in key watersheds. Similarly, the aquifers record deficit on refill aquifers (Boukari, 1998; Totin, 2005) and a variation of hydro-chemical caracteristics (Alassane, 2004). If this climate and hydrological trend continues, hydrological drought will lead to a considerable reduction of water resources and a potential shortage. Similarly, the water quality will be affected in various ways. Very wet weather events would induce an increased transfer of pollutants to the water bodies as opposed to dryness that would accentuate deterioration especially of the bacteriological quality of water resources. Facing to the quantitative and qualitative degradation of both surface and groundwater should develop strategies to increase the potential availability of the resource. To this end, it is important above all to protect areas of groundwater recharge, stabilize stream banks and water bodies. Improving the quality of water resources in a changing climate context implies that people are aware of the risks of shortage and of agricultural good practices (no use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides), management of solid and liquid waste. The water law must be adapted to the context of climate change and vulnerability of the water resource

An institutional perspective on farmers’ water management and rice production practices in Benin

This thesis is part of the wider debate about the role of institutions in agricultural innovation processes. It investigates how institutions shape rice production in inland valleys in Benin. It starts from a scoping study (prior to this research) on smallholder irrigation in Benin, which indicated irrigation water stress as one of the main problems in the rice production chain. The authors explain the water scarcity as the consequence of poor maintenance of the irrigation canals, whereas others think that is a direct manifestation of climate change. It appears that a mono‐technical explanation cannot give a deep enough understanding of the existing water problem, which has various dimensions. The thesis therefore assumes that an institutional perspective would provide a better insight into the barriers that hinder the efficient use of irrigation water in the rice production chain. Chapter 1 introduces the main problems teased out in the book. Between 1976 and 1990, the Benin government initiated numerous interventions to increase local rice production. These different interventions were ineffective because of the many innovation barriers that existed in the rice chain. Therefore, the first research question addressed in this research is: what are the constraints in the local rice value chain and the opportunities for innovation in the research areas? After the 2007 rice crisis, the government introduced a new generation of interventions which prioritised the institutional facilities (e.g., subsidies for seeds and loans for fertiliser, market facilities and so forth) to support the intensification of local rice production. There have been successful outcomes in terms of increased rice yield, rice production and farmers’ income. So, this research is interested in studying the effectiveness of the two generations of interventions in the rice value chain. The following research question is also addressed: how and to what extent does the new generation of interventions create space for rice production in the research areas and overcome the shortcomings of previous interventions? Which factors hinder the effective use of irrigation water and the development of the local rice value chain in the three research areas are further explored in a diagnostic study and described in Chapter 2. The diagnosis indicates that it is not only technical constraints that hinder the local rice production chain; rather, a combination of technical and institutional factors affect the development of rice production. Moreover, both local and higher level institutional barriers influence negatively the local rice value chain. The barriers to innovation include: unclear division of responsibilities for canal maintenance between local farmer groups and the government, lack of effective local rules for the distribution of the available water and maintenance of the irrigation infrastructures, distrust among farmers and the constraining formal and informal credit systems and uncertain market outlets. These constraints reduce rice output and farmers’ incomes. After identifying the main economic, institutional and technical constraints that limited the development of the local rice production chain, the study also describes the potential opportunities that exist for innovation in the chain. Chapter 2 shows that, from a bio‐technical perspective, in the three irrigation schemes, the actual rice output remains far below the estimated potential of the command areas, given the water and land available in the inland valleys. It establishes that there is room for a considerable increase in rice production and associated incomes. For instance, in Koussin‐Léléand Bamè, farmers have lands in the uplands as well as the lowlands. Less than 10% of the potential land is used for rice production. Chapter 4 shows an option to improve soil moisture in the uplands and extend rice production in this part of the valleys. In the research areas, there are differences in the extent to which the rules for collective activities are set and followed. The farmers cooperate, for instance, to collectively purchase inputs, make collective credit requests or sell collectively the harvested rice. At the start of the study however, not all the farmers contributed to the collective cleaning of the canals to increase the water discharge that serves all of them. among the farmers, a comparative analysis of the three research areas was conducted, using a framework to highlight key contextual differences such as the nature of the resource, the characteristics of the user group and farmer‐based institutional arrangements in the geographical areas. The findings of the case studies, reported in Chapter 3, draw attention to the balance between water demand and availability, the existence of inequities and privileged positions within the groups and the strength of farmers’ group organisation and the ability to sanction uncooperative behaviour. The existence of alternative sources of livelihood also influenced cooperation. Contrary to our expectations, the analysis shows that the largest and most diverse group of farmers appeared best organised and equipped to engage in cooperation. Large, diverse farmer groups allow the emergence of institutional arrangements that can overcome social dilemma situations and demotivation emanating from customary privileges and exemptions. A collaborative action research approach was used to explore the opportunity to expand rice production in the upland areas. In Chapter 2, it was already established that rice production could be improved for the uplands if there was a better supply of irrigation water. This analysis inspired the action research conducted in collaboration with the rice farmers (from the three production research areas), an extension agent and a researcher to examine the application of mulch (three doses) and the use of a highyield lowland rice variety to replace an upland rice variety (Chapter 4). Multiple methods suggested by both the researcher and farmers themselves were used to evaluate the trial results: quantitative evidence was combined with qualitative evaluation, using indicators agreed upon by the collaborating group. The results show that the lowland rice variety IR‐841 with 10 t ha‐1 ‘rice‐straw’mulch allows farmers to better use available water in the upland areas and increase rice yields. Although opting for IR‐841 over the specially bred upland variety Nerica‐4 is risky because of its high water demand and the uncertainty in rainfall distribution, farmers use IR‐841 for profit maximisation. Beyond its technical output, the joint experimentation facilitated the exchange of knowledge, experiences and practices among the involved stakeholders. Since the rice crisis of 2007, the government of Benin has initiated a variety of short‐and long‐term programmes aimed at providing access for farmers to agricultural inputs for local rice intensification. Chapter 5 explores the interplay between the external interventions of the government programmes and the local actions of farmers, in the three research areas. Using an actor‐oriented perspective combined with the timelines of the chronological events, the study concludes that farmers’ local actions interact at diverse junctures with the external interventions. The study shows that it is not only external interventions that trigger changes; rather, the interaction between external interventions and farmers’ local actions makes room for changes to happen. Moreover, the investigations show that, although the same institutional conditions (through the different government interventions) were provided to rice farmers in the three study areas, located close to one another, there are similar, but also divergent, hence unexpected outcomes regarding farmers’ social practices. The most obvious unexpected outcomes of the programme interventions are the change from limited collective canal cleaning to individual effective canal cleaning in Koussin‐Lélé, the use of pumps in upland areas in Bamèand farmers who changed from growing vegetables or maize alone to growing rice in combination with these in Zonmon. The wish to satisfy subsistence livelihood needs, the different production options available and natural biophysical conditions (e.g., floods) are the main factors that contribute to shaping farmers’ local actions and explain the diversity of practices in the three research areas, although they all received the same interventions. Chapter 6 provides answers to the research questions formulated in Chapter 1 and reflects on how the different results from the thesis contribute to the policy debate about how to improve rice production in Benin. Reflection on the sustainability of the current rice intensification policy established that the government interventions constitute a “protected space”. However, there is no guarantee that the intensification of local rice production will still continue when the supports provided by the government projects end. Another limitation of the rice intensification policy is that it relies on the use of the irrigation schemes designed for one cropping season in a context where farmers are now producing up to three cropping seasons a year. The inadequacy of the irrigation design concept for the intensification of rice production might contribute to explaining why some of the farmers are suffering from the lack of irrigation water. Moreover, although the inland valleys in Benin are a potential area for rice production, they are also complex ecosystems with irregular water supply wherein smallholder farmers must carefully allocate available resources. The thesis shows the importance of institutions in agricultural production. Many institutional studies are about social issues. One of the main contributions of this thesis relates to the points it established by linking institutional issues with technical dimensions. Chapters 3 and 4 explain the interrelations between institutions and water management practices. The experimental procedure described in Chapter 4 was grounded in the institutional context but also has a technical purpose that is, identifying water use options that allow the expansion of rice production in the uplands. By exploring a technical issue like water management from an institutional perspective, the thesis provides clear understanding of the reasons behind farmers’ seemingly illogical or irrational water management practices.</p

Interactions between the omnivorous bug Nesidiocoris tenuis (Heteroptera: Miridae) and the tomato pests Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Phthorimaea absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): predation, phytophagy, and prey preference

Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) (Heteroptera: Miridae) is a zoophytophagous bug that can derive nutrients from 3 trophic levels: plants, herbivorous arthropods, and other predators. On tomato, besides damaging the plants as they feed, might the mirid also forage on pest species and repel pests. In greenhouse and laboratory experiments, we investigated the functional response of the bug, its prey preference, and its influence on the oviposition potentials of 2 major pest species Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Phthorimaea absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) on tomato Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae). Nesidiocoris tenuis showed a Type II functional response to both prey species. The estimated handling time was higher for H. armigera eggs than for P. absoluta yet N. tenuis attack rates did not differ between the 2 prey species. Nesidiocoris tenuis did not show a preference for 1 species when prey eggs were provided in equal proportions. The feeding on tomato plants by N. tenuis did not affect oviposition by the 2 moth species, as neither species showed a preference for clean or N. tenuis-adult-damaged plants and clean or N. tenuis-nymph-damaged plants. This study shows that N. tenuis can prey upon eggs of both moth species as the 3 species co-occur in tomato fields. However, because of the shorter handling time of P. absoluta eggs by the predator and the higher number of eggs laid by H. armigera, the co-occurrence might be less detrimental to the H. armigera populations compared to P. absoluta

Analyse des discordances entre les niveaux national et local par rapport à la gestion du changement climatique au Mali

Au Mali, l’analyse des discordances entre le niveau national et le niveau local dans le domaine des politiques en lien avec le changement climatique questionne la problématique de la prise en compte des préoccupations des communautés locales (en l’occurrence rurales) dans ces politiques. Elle amène aussi à nous interroger sur les interactions entre acteurs et les effets induits par les politiques sur les réalités et les pratiques des acteurs concernés. Il ressort qu’un grand nombre de documents de politiques publiques et de normes ont été produits et des institutions dédiées ont été mises en place au niveau national dans le cadre de la lutte contre le changement climatique. Cependant, sur le terrain, un fossé existe toujours entre la réalité des mesures au niveau national et les pratiques au niveau local par rapport à la mise en œuvre de ces politiques. Les interventions au niveau local ne sont pas toujours en cohérence avec le contenu des documents officiels qui eux aussi sont assez souvent mal connus à l’échelle locale. Des problèmes de mise en cohérence des interventions existent même au niveau des acteurs étatiques, entre eux d’une part, et avec les autres acteurs (pouvoirs traditionnels, services techniques, collectivités, organisations de la société civile) d’autre part. Il est souvent reproché à l’Etat central, selon les acteurs locaux, de ne pas faire le nécessaire pour éviter des divergences. Au demeurant, il reste constant que l’écart entre les niveaux national et local vient du fait que les dispositions ne sont toujours harmonisées pour permettre une mise en œuvre au niveau local des mesures nationales prises. Une meilleure prise en compte des réalités sociales, économiques et culturelles en cours au niveau local dans la définition des normes nationales pourrait offrir plus d’opportunités pour réduire les écarts observés

Analyse du contexte institutionnel de gestion du changement climatique au Sénégal

Les changements et variabilités climatiques représentent des défis majeurs pour la mise en oeuvre des plans et politiques nationaux de développement. Le Sénégal, avec l’appui du programme « Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security » (CCAFS) a formé une Plateforme Multi-acteurs pour faciliter les échanges entre chercheurs et décideurs autours des questions d’adaptation du secteur de l’agriculture et de la Sécurité alimentaire au changement climatique. La présente étude est faite pour comprendre les goulots d’étranglement qui reposent sur la mise en oeuvre effective des politiques de changement climatique. L’étude révèle qu’au niveau national les actions stratégiques semblent tout au plus être définies avec des objectifs cloisonnés qui n'intègrent pas un cadre de référence concerté. L'insuffisance de synergie des différents départements ministériels disperse les efforts de l'Etat en matière de prévision et de planification des changements climatiques dans les stratégies politiques. En plus le déficit en ressources humaines de l’administration publique, notamment dans le secteur agricole après les réformes structurelles des années 90, a engendré un faible accès aux technologies agricoles et aux bonnes pratiques d’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Il a été démontré que la disponibilité de la technologie culturale pour l'adaptation, au moins à court terme, n'est pas un problème, mais c’est plutôt l'accessibilité à ces technologies qui est difficile. Les services d’encadrement et d’appui conseil sont généralement insuffisants en raison de contraintes financières et de compétences. Pour pallier à ces faits, il est nécessaire de mettre l’accent sur : la sensibilisation du monde rural sur les changements climatiques, faciliter l’accès aux formations et services climatiques, surtout dans secteurs de la pêche, de l’agriculture et de l’élevage

Assessment of climate change policy and institutional context: The case of Ghana

Mainstreaming climate change strategies on the basis of Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) into agricultural food security policies demands multi-dimensional approaches. In sub-Saharan Africa, the demand is made more complex by the socioeconomic challenges such as poverty, unstable markets, limited opportunities for employment and livelihoods. Mainstreaming therefore has to be done on the basis of informed strategies formulated on comprehensive studies. This study was conducted to inform the strategies for science-based and climate-smart agriculture in Ghana, especially with reference to the policy and institutional framework. The methodology comprised desk research of policy documents and related publications and Key Informant Interviews (KII). The study was based on the CCAFS Platform areas in Upper West Region. The research shows that though some efforts were made in the specific case of the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP), inclusion in the process did not reach the grassroots. Thus there were weaknesses in harnessing societal grassroots’ inputs for the policy formulation process. Still the policy has been well formulated and successfully launched. However, there is lack of awareness and knowledge about the policy especially in the decentralized levels of society in the districts and policy literacy is very low. The situation poses a challenge to effective implementation of the NCCP. To address some of the key challenges identified, it is vital to strengthen the vertical and horizontal channels of policy communication. The communication from the national sources to the districts must be improved through more frequent interaction. In the regions and districts, horizontal communication to reach out to all stakeholders can be greatly facilitated by the use of the electronic media

Traditional Adaptation Strategies to Hydrosystem Degradation for Sustainable Management of the Aheme Lake in Benin (West Africa)

The water system like the lake Aheme are abundant in halieutic species (fish, crabs, shrimps…) exploited by resident populations. Over exploitation and high degradation of ecosystems of the lake Aheme induce inexorably fish productivity reduction. Halieutic production reduction generates a subsequent fall of incomes of the households depending primarily on the fishery activities. The fall of halieutic production involves today significant migratory movements of the fishermen and socioeconomic problem. Thus, adaptation strategies are developed for sustainable management of the lake Aheme. These strategies consist in holding as sacred a part of the lake with the divinity Avlekete, fishing holes creation and mangrove restoration. Sacred lake park called ‘’Avlekete-tin’’ is the most important traditional strategy. These endogenous methods of ecological conservation constitute actually effective strategies of productivity and fishing development on the Aheme lake

Fonctionnement et organisation du cadre institutionnel du changement climatique au Mali

Le Projet Flagship 4 du CCAFS mis en oeuvre au Mali, depuis 2014 considère qu’une large adoption des pratiques respectueuses du climat peut contribuer à améliorer le revenu des producteurs et réduire les risques de pertes de récoltes. Mais l’adoption des options proposées ne serait possible que si un dispositif institutionnel performant est mis en place pour soutenir la diffusion des technologies adaptées. La présente étude est initiée pour faire le diagnostic du contexte institutionnel actuel au niveau du pays et de proposer des options concrètes de renforcement des capacités des acteurs intervenant dans le secteur pour permettre une intégration effective des effets du changement climatique dans les plans et politiques nationaux de développement. L’étude a identifié certaines contraintes majeures notamment la dépendance de l’Etat malien aux appuis extérieurs qui limitent la mise en oeuvre effective des politiques de changement climatique. Aussi, la déconnexion entre les niveaux de mise en oeuvre national et local dans la gestion des aspects de gouvernance locale ; des politiques publiques sans suivi-évaluation du fait du manques de ressources financières et humaines limitent la mise en oeuvre des politiques

Barriers to effective climate change policy development and implementation in West Africa

This Info Note explores major barriers for effective climate change policy implementation in Ghana, Mali and Senegal with a particular focus on agriculture and food systems. It aims to provide insights to researchers, policy makers and development practitioners working on climate change issues and activities as to what hampers successful climate policy implementation in West Africa and how identified barriers could be over-come