Cyberspace and International Relations: Rising Powers, Proxies, and Norms

Cyberspace hat sich zu einem wichtigen Teil in Analysen von Machtverschiebungen im internationalen System zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts entwickelt. Mehr als die Hälfte der Menschheit hat heute Zugang zum Internet, dessen strategische Bedeutung mit einer zunehmenden Anzahl von Nutzern und Maschinen weiter wachsen wird. Diese kumulative Dissertation beschäftigt sich daher mit der übergreifenden Forschungsfrage „Wie beeinflusst Cyberspace Machtverschiebungen im internationalen System?“ In drei Artikel und einer Monographie wird untersucht (a) warum die BRICS-Staaten sich in ihrem Verhalten im Bereich der Informations- und Telekommunikationstechnologie mit Blick auf die USA unterscheiden, (b) warum und wie Staaten über Proxybeziehungen auf nichtstaatliche Akteure zur Machtprojektion im Cyberrraum zurückgreifen und (c) wie Normen für den Cyberraum konstruiert werden und welche Rolle die Vereinten Nationen in diesem Prozess bisher spielen. Es ist klar, dass das Internet zu verschiedenen systemrelevanten Veränderungen beigetragen hat. Ein Hauptfaktor ist die diffusion of reach – „die Möglichkeit für Akteure Effekte aus Distanz nicht nur über regionale sondern globale Entfernungen“ über das Internet zu erzeugen. Darüber hinaus lässt sich das Verhalten von Staaten auf internationaler Ebene mit Blick auf das Internet, inklusive dessen offensive Nutzung, wesentlich dadurch erklären, wie diese Regierungen den Einfluss des Internets auf ihre innerstaatlichen Verhältnisse einschätzen. Dieser Umstand erklärt auch die Anfechtung von Normen in diesem Bereich als Teil der Konfrontation zwischen offenen und geschlossen Systemen.Analyzing shifts of power in global affairs is no longer complete without considering cyberspace. Today more than half of the world’s population has access to the Internet. As the number of people and machines connected to the Internet continues to increase, so will its strategic value and impact on international affairs. This cumulative dissertation is therefore guided by the overarching research question, “How does cyberspace affect these power shifts in global affairs?” and three main lines of inquiry pursued across this body of work. The first focuses on the transition of power among states within the context of the rising powers of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa – the BRICS – and how they engage in the contestation of cyberspace vis-à-vis the U.S. The second focuses on the diffusion of power and projection of cyber power by non-state hackers, specifically focusing on proxy relationships between such actors and states. The third analyzes the emerging normative framework governing coercive cyber power consisting of existing international law and nascent norms. The Internet has contributed to several fundamental systemic shifts in significant ways. A key finding across the three lines of inquiry is that the Internet’s single most important impact with respect to the international system is its diffusion of reach – “the ability to cause effects remotely not only over regional but also global distances.” In addition, it is clear that how governments view cyberspace with respect to their domestic political system shapes how they behave in cyberspace internationally—including the use of coercive cyber power directly and indirectly via proxies. This also helps explain the intense contestation with respect to norms for cyberspace as part of the competition between open and closed systems

Mast cells protect from post-traumatic spinal cord damage in mice by degrading inflammation-associated cytokines via mouse mast cell protease 4

AbstractMast cells (MCs) are found abundantly in the central nervous system and play a complex role in neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and stroke. In the present study, we show that MC-deficient KitW-sh/W-sh mice display significantly increased astrogliosis and T cell infiltration as well as significantly reduced functional recovery after spinal cord injury compared to wildtype mice. In addition, MC-deficient mice show significantly increased levels of MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-13 protein levels in the spinal cord. Mice deficient in mouse mast cell protease 4 (mMCP4), an MC-specific chymase, also showed increased MCP-1, IL-6 and IL-13 protein levels in spinal cord samples and a decreased functional outcome after spinal cord injury. A degradation assay using supernatant from MCs derived from either mMCP4−/− mice or controls revealed that mMCP4 cleaves MCP-1, IL-6, and IL-13 suggesting a protective role for MC proteases in neuroinflammation. These data show for the first time that MCs may be protective after spinal cord injury and that they may reduce CNS damage by degrading inflammation-associated cytokines via the MC-specific chymase mMCP4

Outcomes and Complication Rates of Cuff Downsizing in the Treatment of Worsening or Persistent Incontinence After Artificial Urinary Sphincter Implantation

Purpose This study investigated the functional outcomes and complication rates of cuff downsizing for the treatment of recurrent or persistent stress urinary incontinence (SUI) in men after the implantation of an artificial urinary sphincter (AUS). Methods Data from our institutional AUS database spanning the period from 2009 to 2020 were retrospectively analyzed. The number of pads per day was determined, a standardized quality of life (QoL) questionnaire and the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire (ICIQ) were administered, and postoperative complications according to the Clavien-Dindo classification were analyzed. Results Out of 477 patients who received AUS implantation during the study period, 25 (5.2%) underwent cuff downsizing (median age, 77 years; interquartile range [IQR], 74–81 years; median follow-up, 4.4 years; IQR, 3–6.9 years). Before downsizing, SUI was very severe (ICIQ score 19–21) or severe (ICQ score 13–18) in 80% of patients, moderate (ICIQ score 6–12) in 12%, and slight (ICIQ score 1–5) in 8%. After downsizing, 52% showed an improvement of >5 out of 21 points. However, 28% still had very severe or severe SUI, 48% had moderate SUI, and 20% had slight SUI. One patient no longer had SUI. In 52% of patients, the use of pads per day was reduced by ≥50%. QoL improved by >2 out of 6 points in 56% of patients. Complications (infections/urethral erosions) requiring device explantation occurred in 36% of patients, with a median time to event of 14.5 months. Conclusions Although cuff downsizing carries a risk of AUS explantation, it can be a valuable treatment option for selected patients with persistent or recurrent SUI after AUS implantation. Over half of patients experienced improvements in symptoms, satisfaction, ICIQ scores, and pad use. It is important to inform patients about the potential risks and benefits of AUS to manage their expectations and assess individual risks

Impact of Provider Incentives on Quality and Value of Health Care

The use of financial incentives to improve quality in health care has become widespread. Yet evidence on the effectiveness of incentives suggests that they have generally had limited impact on the value of care and have not led to better patient outcomes. Lessons from social psychology and behavioral economics indicate that incentive programs in health care have not been effectively designed to achieve their intended impact. In the United States, Medicare's Hospital Readmission Reduction Program and Hospital Value- Based Purchasing Program, created under the Affordable Care Act (ACA), provide evidence on how variations in the design of incentive programs correspond with differences in effect. As financial incentives continue to be used as a tool to increase the value and quality of health care, improving the design of programs will be crucial to ensure their success. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health Volume 38 is March 20, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates

Climate-induced changes in grapevine yield and must sugar content in Franconia (Germany) between 1805 and 2010

When attempting to estimate the impacts of future climate change it is important to reflect on information gathered during the past. Understanding historical trends may also aid in the assessment of likely future agricultural and horticultural changes. The timing of agricultural activities, such as grape harvest dates, is known to be influenced by climate and weather. However, fewer studies have been carried out on grapevine yield and quality. In this paper an analysis is undertaken of long-term data from the period 1805-2010 on grapevine yield (hl/ha) and must sugar content (°Oe) and their relation to temperature. Monthly mean temperatures were obtained for the same time period. Multiple regression was used to relate the viticulture variables to temperature, and long-term trends were calculated. Overall, the observed trends over time are compatible with results from other long term studies. The findings confirm a relationship between yield, must sugar content and temperature data; increased temperatures were associated with higher yields and higher must sugar content. However, the potential increase in yield is currently limited by legislation, while must sugar content is likely to further increase with rising temperatures

Climate change and the long-term viability of the World’s busiest heavy haul ice road

Climate models project that the northern high latitudes will warm at a rate in excess of the global mean. This will pose severe problems for Arctic and sub-Arctic infrastructure dependent on maintaining low temperatures for structural integrity. This is the case for the economically important Tibbitt to Contwoyto Winter Road (TCWR)—the world’s busiest heavy haul ice road, spanning 400 km across mostly frozen lakes within the Northwest Territories of Canada. In this study, future climate scenarios are developed for the region using statistical downscaling methods. In addition, changes in lake ice thickness are projected based on historical relationships between measured ice thickness and air temperatures. These projections are used to infer the theoretical operational dates of the TCWR based on weight limits for trucks on the ice. Results across three climate models driven by four RCPs reveal a considerable warming trend over the coming decades. Projected changes in ice thickness reveal a trend towards thinner lake ice and a reduced time window when lake ice is at sufficient thickness to support trucks on the ice road, driven by increasing future temperatures. Given the uncertainties inherent in climate modelling and the resultant projections, caution should be exercised in interpreting the magnitude of these scenarios. More certain is the direction of change, with a clear trend towards winter warming that will reduce the operation time window of the TCWR. This illustrates the need for planners and policymakers to consider future changes in climate when planning annual haulage along the TCWR