The World\u27s Most Powerful International Court? The Centrual American Court of Justice and the Quest for De Facto Authority (1907-2020)

The original Central American Court of Justice (CACJ) is often referenced as the world’s first international court (IC). Functioning from 1907 to 1918, and commonly known as the Cartago Court, this court was the first-ever IC and a precursor to the Permanent Court of Justice, or “World Court”, established in 1922 in The Hague. The CACJ does, however, hold another record. The current incarnation of the court – established in 1994, in Managua, Nicaragua as the judicial arm of the Central American System of Economic Integration (Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA) – which is the world’s most powerful international court, formally speaking. The 1991 Protocol of Tegucigalpa (the Protocol)and the 1992 Statute of the CACJ (the Statute)6 provide the Court with remarkably extensive powers. The CACJ is competent to rule as an inter-state IC, as a European Union (E.U.)-style regional economic court, as a supranational constitutional court, and as an arbitral tribunal. Access to the Court is also broad and, in fact, broader than that of the Court of Justice of the European Union (C.J.E.U.) and similar regional economic ICs. In addition to states, individuals, national judges, and other private entities have standing before the Court, making it par excellence a “new style” IC; that is to say, an IC with compulsory jurisdiction and access for non-state actors to initiate litigation

Engineering short, strong, charge-assisted hydrogen bonds in benzoic acid dimers through co-crystallisation with proton sponge

A series of molecular complexes of the proton sponge 1,8-bis­(dimethyl­amino)­naphthalene (DMAN) with monosubstituted halobenzoic acids are reported, illustrating the designed exploitation of the characteristics of the proton sponge to induce short, charge-assisted hydrogen bonds in a predictable and reproducible manner. In every case, a DMAN molecule extracts a proton from the carboxylic acid group of the benzoic acid, as a result of which a recurrent supramolecular unit between a neutral and a deprotonated benzoic acid molecule is formed, featuring an extremely short, strong O–H···O hydrogen bond, within a predominant crystallization ratio of 1:2 (DMAN:benzoic acid)

SISTEMAS DE SOLUÇÃO DE CONTROVÉRSIAS NO MERCOSUL E A ARBITRAGEM INTERNACIONAL COMO ALTERNATIVA DE SOLUÇÃO DE CONTROVÉRSIAS PRIVADAS

O sistema originário de soluções de controvérsias no Mercosul era regido pelo Protocolo de Brasília e pelo Protocolo de Ouro Preto. Em 2002, surge o Protocolo de Olivos com avanços significativos com a constituição de um Tribunal Permanente de Revisão. No entanto, para os particulares, destaca-se Arbitragem Internacional como forma alternativa de solução de controvérsias privadas no MERCOSUL

Calcium Carbonate Scale Deposition Kinetics on Stainless Steel Surfaces

Calcium carbonate scale is one of the most common inorganic scales which deposits on the surface of oil and gas production facilities. This causes significant loss of production and ultimately leads to shut down of production lines if not properly managed. There has been a great amount of research on calcium carbonate deposition studies, but most of these studies have been on understanding calcium carbonate bulk precipitation process. However, little attention have been made on calcium carbonate surface deposition mechanism, which is the main challenge in mitigating scaling in oil and gas and desalination industries. Understanding the mechanism of its formation at different environmental conditions and using a methodology that would reflect the field scenario will gives information required for a reliable predictive model. This study investigated calcium carbonate surface build-up under flow conditions, across a wide range of saturation ratio (SR) at 25oC and 70oC respectively. Both bulk induction time (tind) and surface induction time, which is referred to as scaling time (ts) were determined from capillary flow rig experiments. Mineral scale surface fouling was monitored by a sensitive differential pressure technique with respect to build up of scale on the wall of the capillary cell resulting to change of pressure across the test capillary cell. It was found that, two scaling regimes occur within the brine composition investigated. At SR 80, is controlled by the adhesion of pre-precipitated crystals. This result was supported by the turbidity measurement and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis. The calcium carbonate growth rate determined by measuring the amount of scale deposited at the surface of the capillary cell by Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis (ICP-MS) was smaller compared to the amount of scale predicted from Hagen Poiseuille (HP) equation, where the growth rate is estimated from the pressure drop across the capillary cell as scale build up on the wall of the capillary cell. This was attributed to non-uniformity of the scale layer along the capillary cell which is omitted in the HP equation. A semi empirical model has been developed from the experimental work, which can predict scale deposition growth rate over a period of time and as a function of deposition flux at a given temperature

Calcium carbonate surface/bulk scaling mechanisms and kinetics in a once-through in-situ flow visualization rig

Scale management is usually a complex mixture of prediction, inhibition and sometimes removal strategies. Investigations into scale formation have largely been focused on precipitation in the bulk solution by assuming that surface scaling always results from pre-precipitated crystals in the bulk solution. Recent observations have shown that bulk and surface scaling do not share the same trends with respect to crystal growth kinetics and inhibition as such the relationship between these two scaling processes are being given attention in the literature. Despite much recent attention on scale formation on surface, there is still not a full mechanistic understanding of how scale layers build on component surfaces. Most of the previous studies have been carried out in a closed system where the saturation ratio was decreasing as a function of time. As such, the understanding of the precipitation/deposition system needs a suitable methodology to build an accurate surface deposition kinetic model. The objectives of this study are to develop a once-through flow rig system suitable to distinctively study bulk precipitation and surface scaling processes and also to improve on the understanding of surface scale deposition mechanisms and kinetics at constant supersaturation. The in-situ flow rig is designed to combine measurement of turbidity in the bulk and real-time visualization of scale build up on a solid surface. Calcium carbonate (CaCO¬3) surface and bulk scaling deposition were followed in-situ and in real-time in a newly developed flow rig that allows assessment and control of various scaling indices and parameters. The kinetics and mechanisms of CaCO3 surface scaling are evaluated from images taken with time using the image analysis protocols to determine the surface coverage, number of particles and average size of the crystal. Brines with different values of saturation ratio (SR) 15, 25, 45, 60, 70 and 90 were tested at 25˚C and 40˚C. The effects of SR, flow rates and temperature on scale deposition were studied. The flow rates used are 10ml/min, 20ml/min and 40ml/min. Also, the influence of SR and inhibitor concentration on surface inhibition efficiency of Polyphosphinocarboxylic acid (PPCA) were studied. The newly developed set-up allows for a mechanistic understanding of scale build up on the surfaces in flowing conditions at constant SR and helps to improve the understanding of both bulk precipitation and surface deposition scaling kinetics. Results show that at low SR, the residence time from the mixing point to sample was shorter than the induction time for bulk precipitation and, as a result, there are no crystals in the bulk solution as the flow passes the sample. Therefore, in contrast to popular thinking, the study has shown that crystals present on the surface are not always the result of a secondary deposition process occurring after the precipitation mechanism which occurs in the bulk solution. The determination of surface crystallization mechanisms and kinetics allow for the correct type and dosage of inhibitor to be selected. Addition of inhibitors at the bulk minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) actually aggravates surface scalin

Calcium Carbonate Scale Formation under Multiphase Turbulent Conditions

Crystallization in multiphase systems is one of the major problems that is encountered during oil processing and oil transporting processes. In the petroleum industry oil and water are produced and transported together and this causes mixing of oil and water which may result in different flow behaviour. This study is concerned with the crystallization of calcium carbonate in oil-in-water emulsions. The crystallization process is studied by following the kinetics in which different CaCO3 polymorphic phases are developed on a surface and in the bulk solution using a combination of X-Ray Diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Kinetic measurements combined with microscopic observations have been monitored with time and found as a useful way for characterizing CaCO3 scale formation on a surface and in the bulk solution. This new approach enables a better understanding of the different stages of CaCO3 scale formation in single and multiphase systems. This includes the formation of different polymorphs, the kinetics of growth of each polymorph, the order of polymorphic appearance, the mechanisms of transformation of the metastable phase to the stable one and the prediction of the time required for a complete transformation to a stable phase. The results suggest the importance of the early period of the crystallization process. This period of time represents the nucleation and the growth of the metastable phase which exhibits simultaneously with the transformation to the stable phase. The solution supersaturation ratio is found to reduce by about 96% during this period. It is found that the formation of the more stable phase mainly depends on the formation and the transformation of the less stable phase. The results show the existence of an inhibition effect when adding an oil phase to the surface crystallization through retarding both the nucleation and the dissolution processes of the metastable phase. The oil phase impacts the dissolution process by changing the mechanism of transformation from surface-controlled to diffusion-controlled. This affects the kinetics of formation of the stable phase and results in a reduction in the overall surface deposition. The inhibition effect has also been shown to take place in the bulk solution where less nucleation has been detected for homogeneous type nucleation. At the same time the oil provides an extra surface where heterogeneous nucleation takes place. The presence of oil was shown to have more impact on surface crystallization kinetics than the bulk precipitation kinetics which showed similar bulk behaviour between systems with and without oil at 30o C and 60o C. The results suggest the existence of two simultaneous processes for the precipitation kinetics; the first is the rapid dissolution of the metastable phase followed by the re-crystallization to the stable phase according to a surface-controlled mechanism. This process takes place and ceases rapidly. The second process is the slow dissolution of the metastable phase and this is followed by the re-crystallization of the stable phase according to a dissolution-controlled mechanism. This process is very slow and proceeds for a much longer time. The existence of two processes in the bulk solution compared to only one process for the crystallization on a surface results in much faster kinetics on the surface than in the bulk solution. The results also suggest the similarity in the mechanism of formation and transformation of CaCO3 scale between surface and bulk solution

La mise en oeuvre du mécanisme de règlement des différends commerciaux de l'ASEAN pour la préparation de la Communauté économique de l'ASEAN (AEC)

Le but de cette thèse est de comprendre les règles de résolution de conflits économiques au sein de l’ASEAN (Association des nations de l'Asie du Sud-Est). Les gouvernements des pays membres utilisent deux instruments : le Protocole de 2004 relatif au règlement des contentieux profonds (en anglais Enhanced Dispute Settlement Mechanism, EDSM en abrégé) et la charte de l’ASEAN. Une des questions les plus importantes évoquées depuis l’adoption du Protocole de 2004 (EDSM) est de savoir pourquoi aucun des Etat membres de l’ASEAN n’a jamais fait résoudre un seul différend par le biais de l’EDSM, ce qui signifie que l’EDSM n’a jamais été mis en pratique. De plus, cette question a également conduit à une critique mettant en doute le mécanisme de règlement des différends de l’ASEAN (en anglais Dispute Settlement Mechanism, DSM en abrégé) dans une perspective procédurale et substantielle ; leur efficacité est en outre remise en question. Le fait que les Etats membres de l’ASEAN ont échoué à recourir à ce mécanisme peut être attribué à plusieurs facteurs. Des recommandations et propositions fondamentales pour la future direction du modèle de règlement des différends commerciaux de l’ASEAN sont abordées dans le contexte de la création de la Communauté économique de l’ASEAN (CEA). Il sera difficile à l’avenir pour la CEA d’être efficace si le problème d’application du DSM ne peut pas être résolu.The aim of this thesis is to understand the ASEAN Protocol for the settlement of economic disputes, the so-called 2004 Protocol on an Enhanced Dispute Settlement Mechanism (EDSM) and the ASEAN Charter, which are all related to dispute settlement instruments for the governments of all ASEAN member countries. One of the important questions that have been raised since the adoption of the 2004 Protocol (EDSM) is why no ASEAN member state has ever brought a single dispute to be resolved through the EDSM, which means that the EDSM has never been tested. Moreover, it has also led to increasing criticism of the ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) from both a procedural and substantial perspective; furthermore, its efficiency is still in question. The failure of ASEAN member states to resort to this mechanism can be attributed to many factors. Recommendations and basic suggestions for the future direction of the ASEAN trade dispute settlement model are addressed in the context of the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). It will be difficult for the AEC to be effective in future if the problem of utilising the DSM cannot be resolved

La mise en oeuvre du mécanisme de règlement des différends commerciaux de l'ASEAN pour la préparation de la Communauté économique de l'ASEAN (AEC)

Le but de cette thèse est de comprendre les règles de résolution de conflits économiques au sein de l’ASEAN (Association des nations de l'Asie du Sud-Est). Les gouvernements des pays membres utilisent deux instruments : le Protocole de 2004 relatif au règlement des contentieux profonds (en anglais Enhanced Dispute Settlement Mechanism, EDSM en abrégé) et la charte de l’ASEAN. Une des questions les plus importantes évoquées depuis l’adoption du Protocole de 2004 (EDSM) est de savoir pourquoi aucun des Etat membres de l’ASEAN n’a jamais fait résoudre un seul différend par le biais de l’EDSM, ce qui signifie que l’EDSM n’a jamais été mis en pratique. De plus, cette question a également conduit à une critique mettant en doute le mécanisme de règlement des différends de l’ASEAN (en anglais Dispute Settlement Mechanism, DSM en abrégé) dans une perspective procédurale et substantielle ; leur efficacité est en outre remise en question. Le fait que les Etats membres de l’ASEAN ont échoué à recourir à ce mécanisme peut être attribué à plusieurs facteurs. Des recommandations et propositions fondamentales pour la future direction du modèle de règlement des différends commerciaux de l’ASEAN sont abordées dans le contexte de la création de la Communauté économique de l’ASEAN (CEA). Il sera difficile à l’avenir pour la CEA d’être efficace si le problème d’application du DSM ne peut pas être résolu.The aim of this thesis is to understand the ASEAN Protocol for the settlement of economic disputes, the so-called 2004 Protocol on an Enhanced Dispute Settlement Mechanism (EDSM) and the ASEAN Charter, which are all related to dispute settlement instruments for the governments of all ASEAN member countries. One of the important questions that have been raised since the adoption of the 2004 Protocol (EDSM) is why no ASEAN member state has ever brought a single dispute to be resolved through the EDSM, which means that the EDSM has never been tested. Moreover, it has also led to increasing criticism of the ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) from both a procedural and substantial perspective; furthermore, its efficiency is still in question. The failure of ASEAN member states to resort to this mechanism can be attributed to many factors. Recommendations and basic suggestions for the future direction of the ASEAN trade dispute settlement model are addressed in the context of the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). It will be difficult for the AEC to be effective in future if the problem of utilising the DSM cannot be resolved

Oxygen exchange during the reaction of POCl₃ and water

To investigate O exchange during the reaction of POCl₃ and water, natural abundance POCl₃ was reacted with water highly enriched in ¹⁸O, and the resulting H₃PO₄ was isolated as KH₂PO₄. This reaction was conducted with and without tetrahydrofuran (THF) as a solvent, and was controlled in THF and violent in its absence. Approximately 5 x 10⁻⁴M aqueous solutions of the KH₂PO₄ were analyzed using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, to estimate the proportions of the mass-clumped ¹⁶ ¹⁷ ¹⁸O isotope analogues of [H₂PO₄]⁻. During analysis, ~29% of [H₂PO₄]⁻ dehydrated to PO₃]⁻, for which the proportions of the O isotope analogues were also measured. These proportions were compared with those predicted for O exchange at either four or three positions on the P atom of POCl₃. The data strongly support O exchange at all four positions, whether or not THF was used to moderate conditions during the reaction. This result clears the way for safe, predictable synthesis of heavy-O labelled orthophosphate from POCl₃ and ¹⁸O enriched water for evaluation as an environmental and biochemical tracer

Understanding the challenges of managing SUDS to maintain or improve their performance over time

International audienc