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Tannin- caprolactam and Tannin- PEG formulations as outdoor wood preservatives: Weathering properties

International audienceAbstractKey messageThis article presents the leaching, fire and weathering resistance improvements of samples treated with tannin-based wood preservatives added of caprolactam. PEG-added formulations show limited applicability. The FT-IR and13C-NMR analyses of the caprolactam-added formulations show some evidences of copolymerization.ContextTannin-boron wood preservatives are known for their high resistance against leaching, biological attacks, fire as well as for the good mechanical properties that they impart to wood. These properties promoted these formulations for being a candidate for the protection of green buildings. However, the low elasticity of these polymers and their dark colour implied limited weathering resistances.AimsThe aim of the study is to find suitable additives for tannin-based formulations to overcome their limited weathering resistances, without compromising the other properties.MethodsTreatment, leaching and fire tests, dimensional stability as well as artificial and natural weathering of the timber treated with caprolactam-added and PEG-added formulations were performed. FT-IR and 13C-NMR of the formulations were presented.ResultsThe presence of caprolactam improved the properties of the formulation with particularly significant results in terms of resistance against leaching and dimensional stability. These enhancements were imparted also to the weathering resistance of the tannin-caprolactam formulations. Indeed, the colour changes during the artificial and natural exposures were stable for longer periods. FT-IR and 13C-NMR investigations of the advanced formulations were led, and covalent copolymerization of the caprolactam with the tannin-hexamine polymer was observed.ConclusionThe tannin formulations with caprolactam improved the durability of the wood specimens, while the PEG-tannin presented strong application drawbacks

Women's job quality across family life stages: An analysis of female employees across 27 European countries

There is little empirical evidence on how working conditions affect women’s employment and fertility choices, despite a number of studies on the impact of individual-level and institutional factors. The article addresses this gap by examining how family life stages are related to particular aspects of job quality among employed women in 27 European countries. The central argument of the analysis is that high-quality jobs are conducive to both transitions to motherhood and employment after childbirth as women select into these roles. Accordingly, mothers of young children, if employed, are expected to have relatively better quality jobs. Four dimensions of job quality are considered: job security, career progression, working time and intrinsic job quality. The results indicate that mothers with young children are more likely to hold high-quality jobs than women at other life stages with respect to working time quality and job security, but with some variation across countries for job security. The findings highlight the importance of high-quality jobs for women’s fertility decisions and labour market attachment after childbirth, with implications for European employment policy

Childlessness in France

Even though the average age at first childbirth has been increasing and education and employment options for women have improved immensely in recent decades, in France, unlike in other European countries, these developments have not led to a major increase in childlessness. Birth rates remain high and the share of the population who are childless is among the lowest in western Europe. This article discusses the historical roots as well as the societal conditions, institutional regulations, and political decisions that may explain the low levels of childlessness in France. We also discuss differences in rates of childlessness by education and occupation. Using a large representative survey on family life that was conducted parallel to the French census in 2011, we study the fertility histories of men and women born between the 1920s and late 1970s. We find that while the differences in fertility by level of education seem to have declined, having a higher education is still an obstacle to parenthood for women. For men, having a low educational and occupational status is associated with a greater likelihood of being childless. A large part of the differences in rates of childlessness between social groups can be traced back to the men and women who have never lived in a couple relationship; thus, partnership status can be regarded as a decisive parameter of the extent of childlessness

A Reflection on Economic Uncertainty and Fertility in Europe: The Narrative Framework

none5openVignoli, Daniele; Guetto, Raffaele; Bazzani, Giacomo; Pirani, Elena; Minello, AlessandraVignoli, Daniele; Guetto, Raffaele; Bazzani, Giacomo; Pirani, Elena; Minello, Alessandr