The supplier‐retailer relationship in private label production : a study of private labelling within the Swedish dairy sector

Dagligvaruhandeln befinner sig i en hård konkurrenssituation. Det gäller att locka konsumenter till kedjornas butiker, och framförallt få dem att bli trogna kunder. Detta har lett till att livsmedelskedjorna antagit ett antal strategier för att stärka konkurrensförmågan. En av dessa är EMV, Egna Märkesvaror. Detta är produkter som dagligvarukedjorna säljer under eget varumärke, men inte tillverkar själva. EMV stärker kedjans varumärke, de innebär en affärsmöjlighet inom segment där marknadsledare saknas och de ökar förhandlingsförmågan och lönsamheten. Idag finns fyra så kallade EMV-generationer: generics, cheapest price, me-too och value-added. Generics är enkla, billiga produkter utan namn. Cheapest price är också lågprisprodukter som dock håller något högre kvalitet, de har också en varumärkesetikett. Me-too är kopior av leverantörernas egna märkesvaror, till likvärdig kvalitet och image. Value-added är innovativa, imageskapande produkter som håller hög kvalitet. Exempel på EMV är Axfoods lågprisprodukter Eldorado, och ICAs produkter ICA. Samarbeten mellan två parter måste samordnas på något sätt, genom olika grad av integration. Syftet med studien är att undersöka de stödjande strukturer som idag samordnar de samarbeten som finns mellan leverantör och dagligvaruhandel vid tillverkning av EMV inom mejerisektorn. Utifrån transaktionskostnadsteorin, kontraktteori och teori kring EMV har en analys av dessa samarbeten gjorts. Den empiriska undersökningen genomfördes genom individuella öppna intervjuer med representanter från de tre största dagligvarukedjorna och mejerierna i Sverige. Studien visar att det idag inte är någon väsentlig skillnad mellan de samordningsmekanismer som används vid EMV-samarbetena. De EMV som tillverkas av de svenska mejerierna idag är främst kopior av deras egna produkter, vilket innebär att den befintliga kapaciteten och kompetensen nyttjas. Således finns inte den investeringsgrad, som skulle ha gjort att kontrakten varit mer långsiktiga. Det är främst klassiska, kortsiktiga kontrakt som används, och de centrala mekanismerna som samordnar samarbetet är pris och leveransvillkor. Man kan dock urskilja ett tätare samarbete mellan dagligvaruhandeln och de svenska mejerierna, jämfört med de utländska leverantörerna. Detta beror på att produkterna som de svenska mejerierna tillverkar kräver mer utvecklingsarbete jämfört med de lågprisprodukter som de utländska leverantörena producerar. Dagligvaruhandeln är intresserade av att höja nivån på produkterna inom me-too, då de har mer intäkter i det segmentet. På vilket sätt detta ska ske är ännu oklart, det kan till exempel vara genom förpackningsutveckling. Vill kedjorna skapa mer innovativa produkter, kommer de troligtvis i fortsättningen också vara mer öppna för att vara med och ta gemensamma investeringar. Det är dock inget självändamål att skapa value-added, då det centrala är vad konsumenten efterfrågar. Klart är dock, att dagligvaruhandeln förmodligen måste begränsa sin urvalsprocess till Sverige, då konsumenten har starka preferenser för svensk mjölk i mejeridisken. Dessutom har svenska mejerier kompetensen att tillverka value-added, medan många utländska producenter har lågpris som inriktning. I det fall att mejerierna och dagligvarukedjorna på något sätt blir mer integrerade, blir förmodligen samordningsmekanismer såsom gemensamma normer, värderingar och socialisation allt viktigare. Detta är viktiga komponenter om man vill skapa gemensamma planer, utbyta information, uppnå en långsiktighet i relationen och med detta lägga grunden för ett framgångsrikt samarbete.The competition among the food retailers is fierce. The chain stores have to succeed with drawing customers to their shops, and above all make the customers loyal. This has led to that the food retailer’s use a number of strategies to strengthen their competitiveness. One of these is the use of private labels. These are products that the chain stores do not manufacture themselves, nevertheless sell under their own brand. Private labels serve a purpose through contributing to strengthen the chain stores’s brand, they involve a business opportunity in segment where a market leader is missing and they increase the negotiation power and the profitability. Today there are four so called private label-generations: generics, cheapest price, me-too and value-added. Generics are simple, cheap products with no name. Cheapest price are also low-price products, though with better quality and also a brand name. Me-too are copies of the producers’s own products, with the same quality and image. Value-added are innovative image-building products with high quality. The cooperation between two parties needs to be coordinated in some way, through different degrees of integration. The purpose with the study is to examine the structure that supports the cooperation between manufacturer and food retailer when producing private label within the dairy sector. On the basis of transaction cost theory, contract theory and the theory among private labels, an analysis of these collaborations has been made. The empirical study was carried out through individual open interviews with representatives from the three largest food retailers and dairies in Sweden. The study shows that there is no essential difference between the coordination mechanisms that are being used in private label-cooperations. The private label-products produced by the Swedish dairies are mainly copies of their own products, which mean that the existing capacity and capabilities are being used. This implies that the degree of investments is not that large, which would have led to long-term contracts. Mainly classic contracts are being used, and the central coordination mechanisms are price and terms of delivery. Still, the food retailers are probably closer connected to the Swedish manufacturers compared to the foreign ones. This is because the products the Swedish dairies produce need more of development work compared to the low price-products that are being produced abroad. The food retailers have an interest in increasing the level of the me-too products, since they have more income in that segment. In which way this will come about is still not clear, it can for example be through development of the packaging. If the food chains wish to develop more innovative products, they will probably be more open about investments. Nevertheless, there is no end in itself to create value-added, the essential is the customers demand. It is rather clear that the selection process will have to be limited to Sweden, because of the high preference for Swedish milk among consumers. Also, the Swedish dairies have the capability to produce value-added, while many of the foreign manufacturers only manufacture discount products. If the food retailers and the dairies in some way become more integrated, other coordination mechanisms such as common norms, values and socialization will probably increase in importance. All these are important components if the parties wish to establish a sustainable successful relationship, create common plans and exchange information

Reducing queues: demand and capacity variations

Purpose – The aim of this paper is to investigate how waiting lists or queues could be reduced without adding more resources; and to describe what factors sustain reduced waiting-times. Design/methodology/approach – Cases were selected according to successful and sustained queue reduction. The approach in this study is action research. Findings – Accessibility improved as out-patient waiting lists for two clinics were reduced. The main success was working towards matching demand and capacity. It has been possible to sustain the improvements. Research limitations/implications – Results should be viewed cautiously. Transferring and generalizing outcomes from this study is for readers to consider. However, accessible healthcare may be possible by paying more attention to existing solutions. Practical implications – The study indicates that queue reduction activities should include acquiring knowledge about theories and methods to improve accessibility, finding ways to monitor varying demand and capacity, and to improve patient processing by reducing variations. Originality/value – Accessibility is considered an important dimension when measuring service quality. However, there are few articles on how clinic staff sustain reduces waiting lists. This paper contributes accessible knowledge to the field

O egregie grammatice: the vocative problems of Latin words ending in -ius

© The Classical Association 2000A long-lasting and sometimes acrimonious debate over the correct vocative form of second-declension Latin words in -ius began more than 800 years ago. For the past century most classicists have considered the matter to be settled, and little discussion on the subject has taken place. Yet the century-old conclusions we now so unthinkingly accept are based on very little evidence and are internally inconsistent in some of their details. The past hundred years have provided us not only with more Latin to work with, better tools for search and analysis, and a more complete knowledge of the history of the Latin language, but also with a new understanding and respect for the ancient grammarians and their views on the structure of their language. It is time to re-examine the ancient and modern views on the vocative of -ius words, to see whether any viable conclusions can be drawn and whether the ancient grammarians may have more to contribute than our predecessors believed

Carcinoma of the Urinary Bladder. Aspects of treatment, Costs and Follow-up Routines

Aims: To determine costs and factors related to the total costs of cystectomy. To study the results of the radiological examinations performed 7-14 days after a cystectomy. To investigate if a single instillation of epirubicin after transurethral resection (TUR) may influence the time to the first recurrence and its size. To elucidate if a routine with reduced numbers of follow-up cystoscopies in patients with stage Ta tumour is safe. Patients and methods: The clinical records of 70 consecutive patients subjected to cystectomy were studied. Costs were determined for cystectomies and 22 different factors possibly related to total costs were analysed. The clinical records for a total number of 200 consecutive cystectomy patients were analysed for the results of the postoperative urography. A total number of 404 patients in 13 hospitals were randomised to either one instillation of 50mg epirubicin or placebo within 6 hours after TUR. We included 138 patients with low-grade tumours who had a negative 4–month cystoscopy in a prospective observational study. The size and number of subsequent recurrences were determined. Results and conclusions: The total costs (median) for cystectomy was 189,479 SEK. Room and Board was the most expensive single item of total costs. In the multivariate analysis high peroperative blood loss was the most important factor associated with high total hospital costs. Not a single patient out of 170 had urinary leak or a significant stricture visualised at the postoperative urography. It can be concluded that a postoperative urography is unnecessary in patients with a normal postoperative course. Seventy-nine (51.0%) out of 155 evaluable patients in the epirubicin group had a recurrence as compared to 95 (62.5%) out of 152 patients in the placebo group. Half of the recurrences were small-sized and could be fulgurated at the time of the follow-up cystoscopy. The clinical benefit of single instillations thus seems questionable. Patients with low-grade stage Ta tumours who are tumour-free at 4 months can safely follow a routine with cystoscopy at month 12 and 24 and almost all recurrences can be fulgurated at follow-up