Nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents in eastern and southern Africa: A scoping review

Aims: This review aims to summarize available literature on the nutritional status of school-age children (SAC) and adolescents aged 5-19 years in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) and interventions aiming to tackle malnutrition in this age group. Methods: We searched Pubmed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Web of Science, Africa Wide Information, ArticleFirst, Biomed Central, BioOne, BIOSIS, CINAHL, EBSCOHost, JSTOR, ProQuest, Google Scholar, SAGE Reference Online, Scopus, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Taylor & Francis, and Wiley Online for articles published between 2005 and 2020 according to eligibility criteria. Results: A total of 129 articles were included, with the majority of studies presenting data from Ethiopia (N = 46) and South Africa (N=38). The prevalence of overweight and obesity ranged between 9.1 – 32.3 % and 0.8 – 21.7 % respectively across countries in ESA. Prevalence of thinness, stunting and underweight ranged as follows: 3.0 – 36.8 %; 6.6 – 57.0 %; 5.8 – 27.1 %. Prevalence of anemia was between 13.0 – 76.9 % across the region. There was a dearth of data on other micronutrient deficiencies. There was limited evidence from intervention studies (N = 6), with half of the interventions targeting anemia or iron deficiency using iron supplementation or fortification methods and reporting no significant effect on anemia prevalence. Interventions targeting stunting and thinness (N = 3) reported beneficial effects of providing vitamin A fortified maize, iron supplementation and nutrition education. Conclusions: A triple burden of malnutrition underlines the need to prioritize implementation of double-duty interventions for SAC and adolescents in ESA. Key data gaps included either limited or a lack of data for the majority of countries, especially on micronutrient deficiencies and a scarcity of intervention studies. Greater investment in nutrition research amongst this population is needed to strengthen the evidence base and inform policies and programs to improve nutritional status amongst SAC and adolescents in ESA

Integrating Women and Girls' Nutrition Services into Health Systems in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review.

Women's nutrition has been highlighted as a global priority to ensure the health and well-being of both them and future generations. This systematic review summarises the available literature on the integration of nutrition services for girls and women of reproductive age (GWRA) into existing public health systems across low- and middle-income countries, as well as any barriers to integration. We searched PubMed and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews for articles published since 2011 according to eligibility criteria. A total of 69 articles were included. Evidence suggested that several services for GWRA are well integrated into public health systems, including antenatal care services, nutrition education and counselling, and micronutrient supplementation programmes. However, there was limited evidence on the integration of family planning, adolescent health, and reproductive health services. Barriers to integration fell into five main themes: lack of training and capacity building, poor multisectoral linkages and coordination, weak advocacy, lack of M&E systems, and inequity. We identified a lack of evidence and services for non-pregnant GWRA and for women postpartum. Addressing barriers to integration and gaps in nutrition services for GWRA would increase service coverage and contribute to improving health outcomes for GWRA and future generations

Food insecurity, diet quality and body composition:data from the Healthy Life Trajectories Initiative (HeLTI) pilot survey in urban Soweto, South Africa

Objective: To determine whether food security, diet diversity and diet quality are associated with anthropometric measurements and body composition among women of reproductive age. The association between food security and anaemia prevalence was also tested. Design: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data from the Healthy Life Trajectories Initiative (HeLTI) study. Food security and dietary data were collected by an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Hb levels were measured using a HemoCue, and anaemia was classified as an altitude-adjusted haemoglobin level &lt; 12·5 g/dl. Body size and composition were assessed using anthropometry and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Setting: The urban township of Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. Participants: Non-pregnant women aged 18-25 years (n 1534). Results: Almost half of the women were overweight or obese (44 %), and 9 % were underweight. Almost a third of women were anaemic (30 %). The prevalence rates of anaemia and food insecurity were similar across BMI categories. Food insecure women had the least diverse diets, and food security was negatively associated with diet quality (food security category v. diet quality score: B = -0·35, 95 % CI -0·70, -0·01, P = 0·049). Significant univariate associations were observed between food security and total lean mass. However, there were no associations between food security and body size or composition variables in multivariate models. Conclusions: Our data indicate that food security is an important determinant of diet quality in this urban-poor, highly transitioned setting. Interventions to improve maternal and child nutrition should recognise both food security and the food environment as critical elements within their developmental phases.</p

Nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries across seven global regions: a synthesis of scoping reviews.

OBJECTIVE: To summarise available evidence on the nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents (5-19 years) from seven global regions, and on interventions implemented to improve malnutrition in this population. DESIGN: Findings were compiled from seven scoping literature reviews, including data from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) within the following UNICEF-defined global regions: East Asia and Pacific (EAP); Europe and Central Asia (ECA); South Asia (SA); West and Central Africa (WCA); Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA); Middle East and North Africa (MENA); and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). RESULTS: A double burden of malnutrition was evident across the world regions reviewed: stunting, thinness, anaemia and other micronutrient deficiencies persisted, alongside rising overweight and obesity prevalence. Transitions towards diets increasingly high in energy-dense, processed and micronutrient-poor foods were observed. Evidence from intervention studies was limited, but suggested that providing multiple micronutrient-fortified foods or beverages at school may effectively target micronutrient deficiencies and facilitate weight gain in undernourished populations. Interventions to prevent or manage overweight and obesity were even more limited. There was minimal evidence of using novel technological approaches to engage school-age children and adolescents, or of involving them in designing interventions. CONCLUSION: The limited data available on nutrition of school-age children and adolescents is neither standardised nor comparable. Consensus on methods for assessing nutritional status and its determinants for this age group is urgently needed to set targets and monitor progress. Additionally, strategies are required to ensure that nutritious, safe and sustainable diets are available, affordable and appealing

Examining the relationships between body image, eating attitudes, BMI, and physical activity in rural and urban South African young adult females using structural equation modeling.

The persistence of food insecurity, malnutrition, increasing adiposity, and decreasing physical activity, heightens the need to understand relationships between body image satisfaction, eating attitudes, BMI and physical activity levels in South Africa. Females aged 18-23 years were recruited from rural (n = 509) and urban (n = 510) settings. Body image satisfaction was measured using Stunkard's silhouettes, and the 26-item Eating Attitudes questionnaire (EAT-26) was used to evaluate participants' risk of disordered eating. Minutes per week of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was assessed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ). Significant linear correlates were included in a series of regressions run separately for urban and rural participants. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the relationships between variables. Urban females were more likely to be overweight and obese than rural females (p = 0.02), and had a greater desire to be thinner (p = 0.02). In both groups, being overweight or obese was positively associated with a desire to be thinner (p<0.01), and negatively associated with a desire to be fatter (p<0.01). Having a disordered eating attitude was associated with body image dissatisfaction in the urban group (β = 1.27, p<0.01, CI: 0.38; 2.16), but only with a desire to be fatter in the rural group (β = 0.63, p = 0.04, CI: 0.03; 1.23). In the SEM model, body image dissatisfaction was associated with disordered eating (β = 0.63), as well as higher MVPA participation (p<0.01). These factors were directly associated with a decreased risk of disordered eating attitude, and with a decreased desire to be thinner. Findings indicate a shift in both settings towards more Westernised ideals. Physical activity may provide a means to promote a healthy body image, while reducing the risk of disordered eating. Given the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in both rural and urban women, this study provides insights for future interventions aimed at decreasing adiposity in a healthy way

Nutritional status of school-age children (5-19 years) in South Asia: A scoping review.

Information on malnutrition for school-age children and adolescents (5-19 years) in South Asia is fragmented and inconsistent, which limits the prioritization of nutrition policies, programmes and research for this age group. This scoping review aimed to synthesize existing evidence on the burden of malnutrition for children and adolescents aged 5-19 years in South Asia, and on interventions to improve their nutritional status. Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Medline and Google Scholar were systematically searched for articles published between January 2016 and November 2022. Eligible studies reported the prevalence of undernutrition, overweight/obesity, micronutrient deficiencies and unhealthy dietary intakes, and interventions that aimed to address these in South Asia. In total, 296 articles met our inclusion criteria. Evidence revealed widespread, yet heterogeneous, prevalence of undernutrition among South Asian children and adolescents: thinness (1.9%-88.8%), wasting (3%-48%), underweight (9.5%-84.4%) and stunting (3.7%-71.7%). A triple burden of malnutrition was evident: the prevalence of overweight and obesity ranged from 0.2% to 73% and 0% to 38% (with rapidly rising trends), respectively, alongside persistent micronutrient deficiencies. Diets often failed to meet nutritional requirements and high levels of fast-food consumption were reported. Education, fortification, supplementation and school feeding programmes demonstrated beneficial effects on nutritional status. Comprehensive and regular monitoring of all forms of malnutrition among children and adolescents, across all countries in South Asia is required. Further, more large-scale intervention research is needed to ensure policy and programmes effectively target and address malnutrition among children and adolescents in South Asia

Research priorities for nutrition of school-aged children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries.

PURPOSE: A lack of data, intervention studies, policies, and targets for nutrition in school-age children (SAC) and adolescents (5-19 years) is hampering progress towards tackling malnutrition. To stimulate and guide further research, this study generated a list of research priorities. METHODS: Using the Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative (CHNRI) method, a list of 48 research questions was compiled and questions were scored against defined criteria using a stakeholder survey. Questions covered all forms of malnutrition, including micronutrient deficiencies, thinness, stunting, overweight/obesity, and suboptimal dietary quality. The context was defined as research focused on SAC and adolescents, 5 to 19 years old, in low-and middle-income countries, that could achieve measurable results in reducing the prevalence of malnutrition in the next 10 years. RESULTS: Between 85 and 101 stakeholders responded per question. Respondents covered a broad geographical distribution across 38 countries, with the largest proportion focusing on work in East and Southern Africa. Of the research questions ranked in the top ten, half focused on delivery strategies for reaching adolescents and half on improving existing interventions. There were few differences in the ranked order of questions between age groups but those related to in-school children and adolescents had higher expert agreement than those for out-of-school adolescents. The top ranked research question focused on tailoring antenatal and postnatal care for pregnant adolescent girls. CONCLUSION: Nutrition programmes should incorporate implementation research to inform delivery of effective interventions to this age group, starting in schools. Academic research on the development and tailoring of existing nutrition interventions is also needed; specifically, on how to package multisectoral programmes and how to better reach vulnerable and underserved sub- groups, including those out of school

How age and sex affect treatment outcomes for children with severe malnutrition : A multi-country secondary data analysis

Age and sex influence the risk of childhood wasting. We aimed to determine if wasting treatment outcomes differ by age and sex in children under 5 years, enroled in therapeutic and supplementary feeding programmes. Utilising data from stage 1 of the ComPAS trial, we used logistic regression to assess the association between age, sex and wasting treatment outcomes (recovery, death, default, non-response, and transfer), modelling the likelihood of recovery versus all other outcomes. We used linear regression to calculate differences in mean length of stay (LOS) and mean daily weight gain by age and sex. Data from 6929 children from Kenya, Chad, Yemen and South Sudan was analysed. Girls in therapeutic feeding programmes were less likely to recover than boys (pooled odds ratio [OR]: 0.84, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.72–0.97, p = 0.018). This association was statistically significant in Chad (OR: 0.61, 95% CI: 0.39–0.95, p = 0.030) and Yemen (OR: 0.47, 95% CI: 0.27–0.81, p = 0.006), but not in Kenya and South Sudan. Multinomial analysis, however, showed no difference in recovery between sexes. There was no difference between sexes for LOS, but older children (24–59 months) had a shorter mean LOS than younger children (6–23 months). Mean daily weight gain was consistently lower in boys compared with girls. We found few differences in wasting treatment outcomes by sex and age. The results do not indicate a need to change current programme inclusion requirements or treatment protocols on the basis of sex or age, but future research in other settings should continue to investigate the aetiology of differences in recovery and implications for treatment protocols.Peer reviewe

How do children with severe underweight and wasting respond to treatment? A pooled secondary data analysis to inform future intervention studies

Children with weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) <−3 have a high risk of death, yet this indicator is not widely used in nutrition treatment programming. This pooled secondary data analysis of children aged 6–59 months aimed to examine the prevalence, treatment outcomes, and growth trajectories of children with WAZ <−3 versus children with WAZ ≥−3 receiving outpatient treatment for wasting and/or nutritional oedema, to inform future protocols. Binary treatment outcomes between WAZ <−3 and WAZ ≥−3 admissions were compared using logistic regression. Recovery was defined as attaining mid-upper-arm circumference ≥12.5 cm and weight-for-height z-score ≥−2, without oedema, within a period of 17 weeks of admission. Data from 24,829 children from 9 countries drawn from 13 datasets were included. 55% of wasted children had WAZ <−3. Children admitted with WAZ <−3 compared to those with WAZ ≥−3 had lower recovery rates (28.3% vs. 48.7%), higher risk of death (1.8% vs. 0.7%), and higher risk of transfer to inpatient care (6.2% vs. 3.8%). Growth trajectories showed that children with WAZ <−3 had markedly lower anthropometry at the start and end of care, however, their patterns of anthropometric gains were very similar to those with WAZ ≥−3. If moderately wasted children with WAZ <−3 were treated in therapeutic programmes alongside severely wasted children, we estimate caseloads would increase by 32%. Our findings suggest that wasted children with WAZ <−3 are an especially vulnerable group and those with moderate wasting and WAZ <−3 likely require a higher intensity of nutritional support than is currently recommended. Longer or improved treatment may be necessary, and the timeline and definition of recovery likely need review.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Anthropometric deficits and the associated risk of death by age and sex in children aged 6-59 months: A meta-analysis.

Risk of death from undernutrition is thought to be higher in younger than in older children, but evidence is mixed. Research also demonstrates sex differences whereby boys have a higher prevalence of undernutrition than girls. This analysis described mortality risk associated with anthropometric deficits (wasting, underweight and stunting) in children 6-59 months by age and sex. We categorised children into younger (6-23 months) and older (24-59 months) age groups. Age and sex variations in near-term (within 6 months) mortality risk, associated with individual anthropometric deficits were assessed in a secondary analysis of multi-country cohort data. A random effects meta-analysis was performed. Data from seven low-or-middle-income-countries collected between 1977 and 2013 were analysed. One thousand twenty deaths were recorded for children with anthropometric deficits. Pooled meta-analysis estimates showed no differences by age in absolute mortality risk for wasting (RR 1.08, p = 0.826 for MUAC < 125 mm; RR 1.35, p = 0.272 for WHZ < -2). For underweight and stunting, absolute risk of death was higher in younger (RR 2.57, p < 0.001) compared with older children (RR 2.83, p < 0.001). For all deficits, there were no differences in mortality risk for girls compared with boys. There were no differences in the risk of mortality between younger and older wasted children, supporting continued inclusion of all children under-five in wasting treatment programmes. The risk of mortality associated with underweight and stunting was higher among younger children, suggesting that prevention programmes might be justified in focusing on younger children where resources are limited. There were no sex differences by age in mortality risk for all deficits