217 research outputs found
Structure and Properties of Anion-Radical Salt of 7,7,8,8-Tetracyanoquinodimethane with N-Methyl-2,2’-dipyridyl Cation
Dose, exposure time, and resolution in Serial X-ray Crystallography
The resolution of X-ray diffraction microscopy is limited by the maximum dose
that can be delivered prior to sample damage. In the proposed Serial
Crystallography method, the damage problem is addressed by distributing the
total dose over many identical hydrated macromolecules running continuously in
a single-file train across a continuous X-ray beam, and resolution is then
limited only by the available molecular and X-ray fluxes and molecular
alignment. Orientation of the diffracting molecules is achieved by laser
alignment. We evaluate the incident X-ray fluence (energy/area) required to
obtain a given resolution from (1) an analytical model, giving the count rate
at the maximum scattering angle for a model protein, (2) explicit simulation of
diffraction patterns for a GroEL-GroES protein complex, and (3) the frequency
cut off of the transfer function following iterative solution of the phase
problem, and reconstruction of an electron density map in the projection
approximation. These calculations include counting shot noise and multiple
starts of the phasing algorithm. The results indicate counting time and the
number of proteins needed within the beam at any instant for a given resolution
and X-ray flux. We confirm an inverse fourth power dependence of exposure time
on resolution, with important implications for all coherent X-ray imaging. We
find that multiple single-file protein beams will be needed for sub-nanometer
resolution on current third generation synchrotrons, but not on fourth
generation designs, where reconstruction of secondary protein structure at a
resolution of 0.7 nm should be possible with short exposures.Comment: 19 pages, 7 figures, 1 tabl
Viable thermionic emission from graphene-covered metals
Thermionic emission from monolayer graphene grown on representative
transition metals, Ir and Ru, is characterized by low-energy electron
microscopy (LEEM). Work functions were determined from the temperature
dependence of the emission current and from the electron energy spectrum of
emitted electrons. The high-temperature work function of the strongly
interacting system graphene/Ru(0001) is sufficiently low, 3.3 \pm 0.1 eV, to
have technological potential for large-area emitters that are spatially
uniform, efficient, and chemically inert. The thermionic work functions of the
less strongly interacting system graphene/Ir(111) are over 1 eV larger and vary
substantially (0.4 eV) between graphene orientations rotated by 30{\deg}.Comment: Published in Applied Physics Letter
An assessment of the resolution limitation due to radiation-damage in x-ray diffraction microscopy
X-ray diffraction microscopy (XDM) is a new form of x-ray imaging that is
being practiced at several third-generation synchrotron-radiation x-ray
facilities. Although only five years have elapsed since the technique was first
introduced, it has made rapid progress in demonstrating high-resolution
threedimensional imaging and promises few-nm resolution with much larger
samples than can be imaged in the transmission electron microscope. Both life-
and materials-science applications of XDM are intended, and it is expected that
the principal limitation to resolution will be radiation damage for life
science and the coherent power of available x-ray sources for material science.
In this paper we address the question of the role of radiation damage. We use a
statistical analysis based on the so-called "dose fractionation theorem" of
Hegerl and Hoppe to calculate the dose needed to make an image of a lifescience
sample by XDM with a given resolution. We conclude that the needed dose scales
with the inverse fourth power of the resolution and present experimental
evidence to support this finding. To determine the maximum tolerable dose we
have assembled a number of data taken from the literature plus some
measurements of our own which cover ranges of resolution that are not well
covered by reports in the literature. The tentative conclusion of this study is
that XDM should be able to image frozen-hydrated protein samples at a
resolution of about 10 nm with "Rose-criterion" image quality.Comment: 9 pages, 4 figure
Oxidation of graphene on metals
We use low-energy electron microscopy to investigate how graphene is removed
from Ru(0001) and Ir(111) by reaction with oxygen. We find two mechanisms on
Ru(0001). At short times, oxygen reacts with carbon monomers on the surrounding
Ru surface, decreasing their concentration below the equilibrium value. This
undersaturation causes a flux of carbon from graphene to the monomer gas. In
this initial mechanism, graphene is etched at a rate that is given precisely by
the same non-linear dependence on carbon monomer concentration that governs
growth. Thus, during both growth and etching, carbon attaches and detaches to
graphene as clusters of several carbon atoms. At later times, etching
accelerates. We present evidence that this process involves intercalated
oxygen, which destabilizes graphene. On Ir, this mechanism creates observable
holes. It also occurs mostly quickly near wrinkles in the graphene islands,
depends on the orientation of the graphene with respect to the Ir substrate,
and, in contrast to the first mechanism, can increase the density of carbon
monomers. We also observe that both layers of bilayer graphene islands on Ir
etch together, not sequentially.Comment: 15 pages, 10 figures. Manuscript revised to improve discussion,
following referee comments. Accepted for publication in Journal of Physical
Chemistry C, Feb. 11, 201
Extraordinary epitaxial alignment of graphene islands on Au(111)
Pristine, single-crystalline graphene displays a unique collection of
remarkable electronic properties that arise from its two-dimensional, honeycomb
structure. Using in-situ low-energy electron microscopy, we show that when
deposited on the (111) surface of Au carbon forms such a structure. The
resulting monolayer, epitaxial film is formed by the coalescence of dendritic
graphene islands that nucleate at a high density. Over 95% of these islands can
be identically aligned with respect to each other and to the Au substrate.
Remarkably, the dominant island orientation is not the better lattice-matched
30^{\circ} rotated orientation but instead one in which the graphene [01] and
Au [011] in-plane directions are parallel. The epitaxial graphene film is only
weakly coupled to the Au surface, which maintains its reconstruction under the
slightly p-type doped graphene. The linear electronic dispersion characteristic
of free-standing graphene is retained regardless of orientation. That a weakly
interacting, non-lattice matched substrate is able to lock graphene into a
particular orientation is surprising. This ability, however, makes Au(111) a
promising substrate for the growth of single crystalline graphene films
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Damped and thermal motion of large, laser-aligned molecules in droplet beams
We consider a monodispersed Rayleigh droplet beam of water droplets doped with proteins. An intense infrared laser is used to align these droplets. The arrangement has been proposed for electron and X-ray diffraction studies of proteins which are difficult to crystallize. This paper considers the effect of thermal fluctuations on the angular spread of alignment in thermal equilibrium, and relaxation phenomena, particularly the damping of oscillations excited as the molecules enter the field. The possibility of adiabatic alignment is also considered. We find that damping times in high pressure gas cell as used in X-ray diffraction experiments are short compared to the time taken for molecules to traverse the beam, and that a suitably shaped field might be used for electron diffraction experiments in vacuum to provide adiabatic alignment, thus obviating the need for a damping gas cell
Gas Dynamic Virtual Nozzle for Generation of Microscopic Droplet Streams
As shown by Ganan-Calvo and co-workers, a free liquid jet can be compressed
in iameter through gas-dynamic forces exerted by a co-flowing gas, obviating
the need for a solid nozzle to form a microscopic liquid jet and thereby
alleviating the clogging problems that plague conventional droplet sources of
small diameter. We describe in this paper a novel form of droplet beam source
based on this principle. The source is miniature, robust, dependable, easily
fabricated, and eminently suitable for delivery of microscopic liquid droplets,
including hydrated biological samples, into vacuum for analysis using vacuum
instrumentation. Monodisperse, single file droplet streams are generated by
triggering the device with a piezoelectric actuator. The device is essentially
immune to clogging
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