Monolithic MHz-frame rate digital SiPM-IC with sub-100 ps precision and 70 μ~\mum pixel pitch

This paper presents the design and characterization of a monolithic integrated circuit (IC) including digital silicon photomultipliers (dSiPMs) arranged in a 32$~\times~$32 pixel matrix at 70$~\mu$m pitch. The IC provides per-quadrant time stamping and hit-map readout, and is fabricated in a standard 150-nm CMOS technology. Each dSiPM pixel consists of four single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) sharing a quenching and subsequent processing circuitry and has a fill factor of 30$~\%$. A sub-100$~$ps precision, 12-bit time-to-digital converter (TDC) provides timestamps per quadrant with an acquisition rate of 3$~$MHz. Together with the hit map, the total sustained data throughput of the IC amounts to 4$~$Gbps. Measurements obtained in a dark, temperature-stable environment as well as by using a pulsed laser environment show the full dSiPM-IC functionality. The dark-count rate (DCR) as function of the overvoltage and temperature, the TDC resolution, differential and integral nonlinearity (DNL/INL) as well as the propagation-delay variations across the matrix are presented. With aid of additional peripheral test structures, the main building blocks are characterized and key parameters are presented.Comment: 16 pages, 13 figures, 1 tabl

Combining TCAD and Monte Carlo methods to simulate CMOS pixel sensors with a small collection electrode using the Allpix2^{2} framework

Combining electrostatic field simulations with Monte Carlo methods enables realistic modeling of the detector response for novel monolithic silicon detectors with strongly non-linear electric fields. Both the precise field description and the inclusion of Landau fluctuations and production of secondary particles in the sensor are crucial ingredients for the understanding and reproduction of detector characteristics. In this paper, a CMOS pixel sensor with small collection electrode design, implemented in a high-resistivity epitaxial layer, is simulated by integrating a detailed electric field model from finite element TCAD into a Monte Carlo based simulation with the framework. The simulation results are compared to data recorded in test-beam measurements and very good agreement is found for various quantities such as cluster size, spatial resolution and efficiency. Furthermore, the observables are studied as a function of the intra-pixel incidence position to enable a detailed comparison with the detector behavior observed in data. The validation of such simulations is fundamental for modeling the detector response and for predicting the performance of future prototype designs. Moreover, visualization plots extracted from the charge carrier drift model of the framework can aid in understanding the charge propagation behavior in different regions of the sensor

Performance of the EUDET-type beam telescopes

Test beam measurements at the test beam facilities of DESY have been conducted to characterise the performance of the EUDET-type beam telescopes originally developed within the EUDET project. The beam telescopes are equipped with six sensor planes using MIMOSA26 monolithic active pixel devices. A programmable Trigger Logic Unit provides trigger logic and time stamp information on particle passage. Both data acquisition framework and offline reconstruction software packages are available. User devices are easily integrable into the data acquisition framework via predefined interfaces. The biased residual distribution is studied as a function of the beam energy, plane spacing and sensor threshold. Its standard deviation at the two centre pixel planes using all six planes for tracking in a 6\,GeV electron/positron-beam is measured to be (2.88\,\pm\,0.08)\,\upmu\meter.Iterative track fits using the formalism of General Broken Lines are performed to estimate the intrinsic resolution of the individual pixel planes. The mean intrinsic resolution over the six sensors used is found to be (3.24\,\pm\,0.09)\,\upmu\meter.With a 5\,GeV electron/positron beam, the track resolution halfway between the two inner pixel planes using an equidistant plane spacing of 20\,mm is estimated to (1.83\,\pm\,0.03)\,\upmu\meter assuming the measured intrinsic resolution. Towards lower beam energies the track resolution deteriorates due to increasing multiple scattering. Threshold studies show an optimal working point of the MIMOSA26 sensors at a sensor threshold of between five and six times their RMS noise. Measurements at different plane spacings are used to calibrate the amount of multiple scattering in the material traversed and allow for corrections to the predicted angular scattering for electron beams

Time resolution studies of Timepix3 assemblies with thin silicon pixel sensors

Timepix3 is a multi-purpose readout ASIC for hybrid pixel detectors. It can measure time and amplitude simultaneously by employing time-of-arrival (ToA) and time-over-threshold (ToT) techniques. Both methods are systematically affected by timewalk. In this paper, a method for pixel-by-pixel calibration of the time response is presented. Assemblies of Timepix3 ASICs bump-bonded to thin planar silicon pixel sensors with thicknesses of 50 μ m, 100 μ m and 150 μ m are calibrated and characterised in particle beams. For minimum ionising particles, time resolutions down to 0.72 ± 0.04 ns are achieved

Design and characterisation of the CLICTD pixelated monolithic sensor chip

A novel monolithic pixelated sensor and readout chip, the CLIC Tracker Detector (CLICTD) chip, is presented. The CLICTD chip was designed targeting the requirements of the silicon tracker development for the experiment at the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC), and has been fabricated in a modified 180 nm CMOS imaging process with charge collection on a high-resistivity p-type epitaxial layer. The chip features a matrix of 16×128 elongated channels, each measuring 300×30 μm2. Each channel contains 8 equidistant collection electrodes and analog readout circuits to ensure prompt signal formation. A simultaneous 8-bit Time-of-Arrival (with 10 ns time bins) and 5-bit Time-over-Threshold measurement is performed on the combined digital output of the 8 sub-pixels in every channel. The chip has been fabricated in two process variants and characterised in laboratory measurements using electrical test pulses and radiation sources. Results show a minimum threshold between 135 and 180 e‾ and a noise of about 14 e‾ RMS. The design aspects and characterisation results of the CLICTD chip are presented

EUDAQ - A data acquisition software framework for common beam telescopes

EUDAQ is a generic data acquisition software developed for use in conjunction with common beam telescopes at charged particle beam lines. Providing high-precision reference tracks for performance studies of new sensors, beam telescopes are essential for the research and development towards future detectors for high-energy physics. As beam time is a highly limited resource, EUDAQ has been designed with reliability and ease-of-use in mind. It enables flexible integration of different independent devices under test via their specific data acquisition systems into a top-level framework. EUDAQ controls all components globally, handles the data flow centrally and synchronises and records the data streams. Over the past decade, EUDAQ has been deployed as part of a wide range of successful test beam campaigns and detector development applications

Top-quark physics at the CLIC electron-positron linear collider

Abstract The Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) is a proposed future high-luminosity linear electron-positron collider operating at three energy stages, with nominal centre-of-mass energies $$\sqrt{s}$$ s = 380 GeV, 1.5 TeV, and 3 TeV. Its aim is to explore the energy frontier, providing sensitivity to physics beyond the Standard Model (BSM) and precision measurements of Standard Model processes with an emphasis on Higgs boson and top-quark physics. The opportunities for top-quark physics at CLIC are discussed in this paper. The initial stage of operation focuses on top-quark pair production measurements, as well as the search for rare flavour-changing neutral current (FCNC) top-quark decays. It also includes a top-quark pair production threshold scan around 350 GeV which provides a precise measurement of the top-quark mass in a well-defined theoretical framework. At the higher-energy stages, studies are made of top-quark pairs produced in association with other particles. A study of t̄tH production including the extraction of the top Yukawa coupling is presented as well as a study of vector boson fusion (VBF) production, which gives direct access to high-energy electroweak interactions. Operation above 1 TeV leads to more highly collimated jet environments where dedicated methods are used to analyse the jet constituents. These techniques enable studies of the top-quark pair production, and hence the sensitivity to BSM physics, to be extended to higher energies. This paper also includes phenomenological interpretations that may be performed using the results from the extensive top-quark physics programme at CLIC.</jats:p

The F0F1-ATP Synthase Complex Contains Novel Subunits and Is Essential for Procyclic Trypanosoma brucei

The mitochondrial F0F1 ATP synthase is an essential multi-subunit protein complex in the vast majority of eukaryotes but little is known about its composition and role in Trypanosoma brucei, an early diverged eukaryotic pathogen. We purified the F0F1 ATP synthase by a combination of affinity purification, immunoprecipitation and blue-native gel electrophoresis and characterized its composition and function. We identified 22 proteins of which five are related to F1 subunits, three to F0 subunits, and 14 which have no obvious homology to proteins outside the kinetoplastids. RNAi silencing of expression of the F1 α subunit or either of the two novel proteins showed that they are each essential for the viability of procyclic (insect stage) cells and are important for the structural integrity of the F0F1-ATP synthase complex. We also observed a dramatic decrease in ATP production by oxidative phosphorylation after silencing expression of each of these proteins while substrate phosphorylation was not severely affected. Our procyclic T. brucei cells were sensitive to the ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin even in the presence of glucose contrary to earlier reports. Hence, the two novel proteins appear essential for the structural organization of the functional complex and regulation of mitochondrial energy generation in these organisms is more complicated than previously thought

Test beam performance measurements for the Phase I upgrade of the CMS pixel detector

A new pixel detector for the CMS experiment was built in order to cope with the instantaneous luminosities anticipated for the Phase I Upgrade of the LHC. The new CMS pixel detector provides four-hit tracking with a reduced material budget as well as new cooling and powering schemes. A new front-end readout chip mitigates buffering and bandwidth limitations, and allows operation at low comparator thresholds. In this paper, comprehensive test beam studies are presented, which have been conducted to verify the design and to quantify the performance of the new detector assemblies in terms of tracking efficiency and spatial resolution. Under optimal conditions, the tracking efficiency is (99.95 ± 0.05) %, while the intrinsic spatial resolutions are (4.80 ± 0.25) μm and (7.99 ± 0.21) μm along the 100 μm and 150 μm pixel pitch, respectively. The findings are compared to a detailed Monte Carlo simulation of the pixel detector and good agreement is found.Peer reviewe

Detector Technologies for CLIC

The Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) is a high-energy high-luminosity linear electron-positron collider under development. It is foreseen to be built and operated in three stages, at centre-of-mass energies of 380 GeV, 1.5 TeV and 3 TeV, respectively. It offers a rich physics program including direct searches as well as the probing of new physics through a broad set of precision measurements of Standard Model processes, particularly in the Higgs-boson and top-quark sectors. The precision required for such measurements and the specific conditions imposed by the beam dimensions and time structure put strict requirements on the detector design and technology. This includes low-mass vertexing and tracking systems with small cells, highly granular imaging calorimeters, as well as a precise hit-time resolution and power-pulsed operation for all subsystems. A conceptual design for the CLIC detector system was published in 2012. Since then, ambitious R&D programmes for silicon vertex and tracking detectors, as well as for calorimeters have been pursued within the CLICdp, CALICE and FCAL collaborations, addressing the challenging detector requirements with innovative technologies. This report introduces the experimental environment and detector requirements at CLIC and reviews the current status and future plans for detector technology R&D.Comment: 152 pages, 116 figures; published as CERN Yellow Report Monograph Vol. 1/2019; corresponding editors: Dominik Dannheim, Katja Kr\"uger, Aharon Levy, Andreas N\"urnberg, Eva Sickin