Infrared spectroscopy reveals multi-step multi-timescale photoactivation in the photoconvertible protein archetype dronpa

Photochromic fluorescent proteins play key roles in super-resolution microscopy and optogenetics. The light-driven structural changes that modulate the fluorescence involve both trans-to-cis isomerization and proton transfer. The mechanism, timescale and relative contribution of chromophore and protein dynamics are currently not well understood. Here, the mechanism of off-to-on-state switching in dronpa is studied using femtosecond-to-millisecond time-resolved infrared spectroscopy and isotope labelling. Chromophore and protein dynamics are shown to occur on multiple timescales, from picoseconds to hundreds of microseconds. Following excitation of the trans chromophore, a ground-state primary product is formed within picoseconds. Surprisingly, the characteristic vibrational spectrum of the neutral cis isomer appears only after several tens of nanoseconds. Further fluctuations in protein structure around the neutral cis chromophore are required to form a new intermediate, which promotes the final proton-transfer reaction. These data illustrate the interplay between chromophore dynamics and the protein environment underlying fluorescent protein photochromism

Photoactivation of the BLUF protein PixD Probed by the Site-Specific Incorporation of Fluorotyrosine Residues

The flavin chromophore in blue light using FAD (BLUF) photoreceptors is surrounded by a hydrogen bond network that senses and responds to changes in the electronic structure of the flavin on the ultrafast time scale. The hydrogen bond network includes a strictly conserved Tyr residue, and previously we explored the role of this residue, Y21, in the photoactivation mechanism of the BLUF protein AppA by the introduction of fluorotyrosine (F-Tyr) analogs that modulated the pKa and reduction potential of Y21 by 3.5 pH units and 200 mV, respectively. Although little impact on the forward (dark to light adapted form) photoreaction was observed, the change in Y21 pKa led to a 4,000-fold increase in the rate of dark state recovery. In the present work we have extended these studies to the BLUF protein PixD, where, in contrast to AppA, modulation in the Tyr (Y8) pKa has a profound impact on the forward photoreaction. In particular, a decrease in Y8 pKa by 2 or more pH units prevents formation of a stable light state, consistent with a photoactivation mechanism that involves proton transfer or proton coupled electron transfer from Y8 to the electronically excited FAD. Conversely, the effect of pKa on the rate of dark recovery is markedly reduced in PixD. These observations highlight very significant differences between the photocycles of PixD and AppA, despite their sharing highly conserved FAD binding architectures

Femtosecond To Millisecond Dynamics Of Light Induced Allostery In The Avena Sativa LOV Domain

The rational engineering of photosensor proteins underpins the field of optogenetics, in which light is used for spatio-temporal control of cell signalling. Optogenetic elements function by converting electronic excitation of an embedded chromophore into structural changes on the microseconds to seconds timescale, which then modulate the activity of output domains responsible for biological signalling. Using time resolved vibrational spectroscopy coupled with isotope labelling we have mapped the structural evolution of the LOV2 domain of the flavin binding phototropin Avena sativa (AsLOV2) over 10 decades of time, reporting structural dynamics between 100 femtoseconds and one millisecond after optical excitation. The transient vibrational spectra contain contributions from both the flavin chromophore and the surrounding protein matrix. These contributions are resolved and assigned through the study of four different isotopically labelled samples. High signal-to-noise data permit the detailed analysis of kinetics associated with the light activated structural evolution. A pathway for the photocycle consistent with the data is proposed. The earliest events occur in the flavin binding pocket, where a sub-picosecond perturbation of the protein matrix occurs. In this perturbed environment the previously characterised reaction between triplet state isoalloxazine and an adjacent cysteine leads to formation of the adduct state; this step is shown to exhibit dispersive kinetics. This reaction promotes coupling of the optical excitation to successive time-dependent structural changes, initially in the -sheet then -helix regions of the AsLOV2 domain, which ultimately gives rise to J-helix unfolding, yielding the signalling state. This model is tested through point mutagenesis, elucidating in particular the key mediating role played by Q513

Broadband stimulated Raman imaging based on multi-channel lock-in detection for spectral histopathology

Spontaneous Raman microscopy reveals the chemical composition of a sample in a label-free and non-invasive fashion by directly measuring the vibrational spectra of molecules. However, its extremely low cross section prevents its application to fast imaging. Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) amplifies the signal by several orders of magnitude thanks to the coherent nature of the nonlinear process, thus unlocking high-speed microscopy applications that provide analytical information to elucidate biochemical mechanisms with subcellular resolution. Nevertheless, in its standard implementation, narrowband SRS provides images at only one frequency at a time, which is not sufficient to distinguish constituents with overlapping Raman bands. Here, we report a broadband SRS microscope equipped with a home-built multichannel lock-in amplifier simultaneously measuring the SRS signal at 32 frequencies with integration time down to 44 μs, allowing for detailed, high spatial resolution mapping of spectrally congested samples. We demonstrate the capability of our microscope to differentiate the chemical constituents of heterogeneous samples by measuring the relative concentrations of different fatty acids in cultured hepatocytes at the single lipid droplet level and by differentiating tumor from peritumoral tissue in a preclinical mouse model of fibrosarcoma

Variation in LOV Photoreceptor Activation Dynamics Probed by Time-Resolved Infrared Spectroscopy

The light, oxygen, voltage (LOV) domain proteins are blue light photoreceptors that utilize a non-covalently bound flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cofactor as the chromophore. The modular nature of these proteins has led to their wide adoption in the emerging fields of optogenetics and optobiology, where the LOV domain has been fused to a variety of output domains leading to novel light-controlled applications. In the present work, we extend our studies of the sub-picosecond to sub-millisecond transient infrared spectroscopy of the isolated LOV domain AsLOV2 to three full-length photoreceptors in which the LOV domain is fused to an output domain: the LOV-STAS protein, YtvA, the LOV-HTH transcription factor, EL222, and the LOV-histidine kinase, LovK. Despite differences in tertiary structure, the overall pathway leading to cysteine adduct formation from the FMN triplet state is highly conserved, although there are slight variations in rate. However significant differences are observed in the vibrational spectra and kinetics after adduct formation, which are directly linked to the specific output function of the LOV domain. While the rate of adduct formation varies by only 3.6-fold amongst the proteins, the subsequent large-scale structural changes in the full-length LOV photoreceptors occur over the micro- to sub-millisecond timescales and vary by orders of magnitude depending on the different output function of each LOV domain

PRACTICE OF CAD AND CAE DESIGN IN THE FIELD OF PLASMA TECHNOLOGIES

The effectiveness of automated plasma torch design methods can be improved by integrating design and engineering analysis technologies. The features of CAD and CAE technologies for designing plasma torches are considered. Shows examples of the design of plasma torches for cutting metals and waste treatment with the use of digital technologies.Эффективность автоматизированных методов проектирования плазмотронов можно повысить за счет интеграции технологий проектирования и инженерного анализа. Рассмотрены особенности CAD и CAE технологий проектирования плазмотронов. Показаны примеры проектирования плазмотронов для резки металлов и обезвреживания отходов с применением цифровых технологий

BLUF Domain Function Does Not Require a Metastable Radical Intermediate State

BLUF (blue light using flavin) domain proteins are an important family of blue light-sensing proteins which control a wide variety of functions in cells. The primary light-activated step in the BLUF domain is not yet established. A number of experimental and theoretical studies points to a role for photoinduced electron transfer (PET) between a highly conserved tyrosine and the flavin chromophore to form a radical intermediate state. Here we investigate the role of PET in three different BLUF proteins, using ultrafast broadband transient infrared spectroscopy. We characterize and identify infrared active marker modes for excited and ground state species and use them to record photochemical dynamics in the proteins. We also generate mutants which unambiguously show PET and, through isotope labeling of the protein and the chromophore, are able to assign modes characteristic of both flavin and protein radical states. We find that these radical intermediates are not observed in two of the three BLUF domains studied, casting doubt on the importance of the formation of a population of radical intermediates in the BLUF photocycle. Further, unnatural amino acid mutagenesis is used to replace the conserved tyrosine with fluorotyrosines, thus modifying the driving force for the proposed electron transfer reaction; the rate changes observed are also not consistent with a PET mechanism. Thus, while intermediates of PET reactions can be observed in BLUF proteins they are not correlated with photoactivity, suggesting that radical intermediates are not central to their operation. Alternative nonradical pathways including a keto–enol tautomerization induced by electronic excitation of the flavin ring are considered

ATP Changes the Fluorescence Lifetime of Cyan Fluorescent Protein via an Interaction with His148

Recently, we described that ATP induces changes in YFP/CFP fluorescence intensities of Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) sensors based on CFP-YFP. To get insight into this phenomenon, we employed fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy to analyze the influence of ATP on these fluorescent proteins in more detail. Using different donor and acceptor pairs we found that ATP only affected the CFP-YFP based versions. Subsequent analysis of purified monomers of the used proteins showed that ATP has a direct effect on the fluorescence lifetime properties of CFP. Since the fluorescence lifetime analysis of CFP is rather complicated by the existence of different lifetimes, we tested a variant of CFP, i.e. Cerulean, as a monomer and in our FRET constructs. Surprisingly, this CFP variant shows no ATP concentration dependent changes in the fluorescence lifetime. The most important difference between CFP and Cerulean is a histidine residue at position 148. Indeed, changing this histidine in CFP into an aspartic acid results in identical fluorescence properties as observed for the Cerulean fluorescent based FRET sensor. We therefore conclude that the changes in fluorescence lifetime of CFP are affected specifically by possible electrostatic interactions of the negative charge of ATP with the positively charged histidine at position 148. Clearly, further physicochemical characterization is needed to explain the sensitivity of CFP fluorescence properties to changes in environmental (i.e. ATP concentrations) conditions

Profiling of dynamics in protein–lipid–water systems: a time-resolved fluorescence study of a model membrane protein with the label BADAN at specific membrane depths

Profiles of lipid-water bilayer dynamics were determined from picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectra of membrane-embedded BADAN-labeled M13 coat protein. For this purpose, the protein was labeled at seven key positions. This places the label at well-defined locations from the water phase to the center of the hydrophobic acyl chain region of a phospholipid model membrane, providing us with a nanoscale ruler to map membranes. Analysis of the time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopic data provides the characteristic time constant for the twisting motion of the BADAN label, which is sensitive to the local flexibility of the protein–lipid environment. In addition, we obtain information about the mobility of water molecules at the membrane–water interface. The results provide an unprecedented nanoscale profiling of the dynamics and distribution of water in membrane systems. This information gives clear evidence that the actual barrier of membranes for ions and aqueous solvents is located at the region of carbonyl groups of the acyl chains