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Decadal increases in carbon uptake offset by respiratory losses across northern permafrost ecosystems
Tundra and boreal ecosystems encompass the northern circumpolar permafrost region and are experiencing rapid environmental change with important implications for the global carbon (C) budget. We analysed multi-decadal time series containing 302 annual estimates of carbon dioxide (CO2) flux across 70 permafrost and non-permafrost ecosystems, and 672 estimates of summer CO2 flux across 181 ecosystems. We find an increase in the annual CO2 sink across non-permafrost ecosystems but not permafrost ecosystems, despite similar increases in summer uptake. Thus, recent non-growing-season CO2 losses have substantially impacted the CO2 balance of permafrost ecosystems. Furthermore, analysis of interannual variability reveals warmer summers amplify the C cycle (increase productivity and respiration) at putatively nitrogen-limited sites and at sites less reliant on summer precipitation for water use. Our findings suggest that water and nutrient availability will be important predictors of the C-cycle response of these ecosystems to future warming
Global Law Schools on U.S. Models: Emerging Models of Consensus-Based Internationalization or Markets-Based Americanization Models of Global Legal Education
This article examines two substantially irreconcilable approaches to internationalization that are emerging in the United States. The first focuses on globalizing the law school curriculum through internationalization. This approach is congruent with emerging trends in legal education internationalization in Europe. The second approaches internationalization as a market driven competition for influence among dominant domestic legal orders, that is, as nationalist globalization. Internationalization is understood as the extension of the influence of national law outside the national territory and is nicely illustrated by recent efforts to globalize the law school curriculum by internationalizing the conventional U.S. law school curriculum. The principle thesis is this: The global legal education community, led by the Europeans, has been constructing a vision of globalization of legal education that has as its basis the idea of harmonization and convergence of different systems and the development of a new institutional model grounded in harmonized global trends in law. The United States appears to be taking two approaches to this development. After an Introduction, Part II examines the internationalization efforts of U.S. law schools following one of five models: (1) integration; (2) segregation; (3) aggregation; (4) immersion; and (5) multi-disciplinary department models. This project seeks a newer framework for the construction of shared legal structures grounded in joint effort that is not dominated by the approaches off any one state. Part III then examines the ways in which American institutions are also working against this general trend by positing a form of nationalist globalization that has as its foundation the idea that national legal education can go global without globalizing the law taught. Nationalist globalization takes three forms: a focus on the training of lawyers for domestic service whose pedagogical methodologies can be exported, the extraterritorial extension of the U.S. law school system, and the management of post graduate degrees in law for foreign law graduates. In place of harmonization and globalization of law, the American nationalist globalization model grounded in extraterritorial competition for socialization in the laws of the domestic legal order of dominant states. The article ends with an analysis of the consequences of these competing forms of global engagement in legal education. While much of the attention on changes to the American law school environment has focused on internationalization within consensus-based and supplementary programs founded on the internationalization ideal, American law schools have also been developing market-based strategies that are, at their core, fundamentally inconsistent with the internationalization framework.En este artículo se examina dos enfoques sustancialmente incompatibles de la interna-cionalización que están surgiendo en los Estados Unidos. La primera se centra en la globalización del currículo escolar a través de la ley de internacionalización. Este enfo-que es congruente con las nuevas tendencias en la internacionalización de la educa-ción legal en Europa. La internacionalización de los enfoques en segundo lugar como la competencia por el mercado por la influencia entre dominante ordenamientos jurídi-cos nacionales, es decir, la globalización nacionalista. La internacionalización es enten-dida como la extensión de la influencia de la legislación nacional fuera del territorio nacional y está muy bien ilustrado por los recientes esfuerzos para globalizar el currícu-lum escolar la ley por la internacionalización del derecho convencional EE.UU. currículo escolar. La tesis de principio es el siguiente: La comunidad global de educación legal, liderado por los europeos, ha sido la construcción de una visión de la globalización de la educación jurídica, que tiene como base la idea de la armonización y convergencia de los diferentes sistemas y el desarrollo de un nuevo modelo institucional basado en la armonización de las tendencias mundiales de la ley. Los Estados Unidos parecen estar tomando dos enfoques para este desarrollo. Por un lado, algunas instituciones están participando en la internacionalización de la educación. Sin embargo, las institu-ciones estadounidenses también están trabajando en contra de esta tendencia general al plantear una forma de globalización que tiene como fundamento la idea de que la enseñanza del derecho nacional puede ser globalizada y el rechazo de la necesidad de crear y enseñar derecho más allá del derecho nacional. En lugar de la armonización y la globalización del derecho, los estadounidenses de un modelo basado en la competen-cia extraterritorial para la socialización de las leyes del ordenamiento jurídico interno de los estados dominantes