Integral functions of marine vertebrates in the ocean carbon cycle and climate change mitigation

In the last decade, the ocean has absorbed a quarter of the Earth’s greenhouse gas emissions through the carbon (C) cycle, a naturally occurring process. Aspects of the ocean C cycle are now being incorporated into climate change mitigation and adaptation plans. Currently, too little is known about marine vertebrate C functions for their inclusion in policies. Fortunately, marine vertebrate biology, behavior, and ecology through the lens of C and nutrient cycling and flux is an emerging area of research that is rich in existing data. This review uses literature and trusted data sources to describe marine vertebrate C interactions, provides quantification where possible, and highlights knowledge gaps. Implications of better understanding the integral functions of marine vertebrates in the ocean C cycle include the need for consideration of these functions both in policies on nature-based climate change mitigation and adaptation, and in management of marine vertebrate populations.Thank you to the anonymous reviewers whose insightful suggestions greatly improved the manuscript. Thank you to Thomas Eikeland Fiska˚ at the University of Agder for his work on the conceptual figures and to Dr. Marion Martin and Dr. Susanna Huneide Thorbjørnsen for helpful discussions throughout the preparation of the manuscript. Thanks also to Corallie Hunt for comments and advice during the early stages of the manuscript preparation. E.M.O. received support from the Marine Science program within the Research Council of Norway, grant no. 294926 (CODSIZE). H.C.P. was supported by Fulbright Norway, GRID-Arendal, and the University of Alaska Southeast.Ye

An Observational Overview of Solar Flares

We present an overview of solar flares and associated phenomena, drawing upon a wide range of observational data primarily from the RHESSI era. Following an introductory discussion and overview of the status of observational capabilities, the article is split into topical sections which deal with different areas of flare phenomena (footpoints and ribbons, coronal sources, relationship to coronal mass ejections) and their interconnections. We also discuss flare soft X-ray spectroscopy and the energetics of the process. The emphasis is to describe the observations from multiple points of view, while bearing in mind the models that link them to each other and to theory. The present theoretical and observational understanding of solar flares is far from complete, so we conclude with a brief discussion of models, and a list of missing but important observations.Comment: This is an article for a monograph on the physics of solar flares, inspired by RHESSI observations. The individual articles are to appear in Space Science Reviews (2011

Population and fertility by age and sex for 195 countries and territories, 1950–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017

Background: Population estimates underpin demographic and epidemiological research and are used to track progress on numerous international indicators of health and development. To date, internationally available estimates of population and fertility, although useful, have not been produced with transparent and replicable methods and do not use standardised estimates of mortality. We present single-calendar year and single-year of age estimates of fertility and population by sex with standardised and replicable methods. Methods: We estimated population in 195 locations by single year of age and single calendar year from 1950 to 2017 with standardised and replicable methods. We based the estimates on the demographic balancing equation, with inputs of fertility, mortality, population, and migration data. Fertility data came from 7817 location-years of vital registration data, 429 surveys reporting complete birth histories, and 977 surveys and censuses reporting summary birth histories. We estimated age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs; the annual number of livebirths to women of a specified age group per 1000 women in that age group) by use of spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression and used the ASFRs to estimate total fertility rates (TFRs; the average number of children a woman would bear if she survived through the end of the reproductive age span [age 10–54 years] and experienced at each age a particular set of ASFRs observed in the year of interest). Because of sparse data, fertility at ages 10–14 years and 50–54 years was estimated from data on fertility in women aged 15–19 years and 45–49 years, through use of linear regression. Age-specific mortality data came from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2017 estimates. Data on population came from 1257 censuses and 761 population registry location-years and were adjusted for underenumeration and age misreporting with standard demographic methods. Migration was estimated with the GBD Bayesian demographic balancing model, after incorporating information about refugee migration into the model prior. Final population estimates used the cohort-component method of population projection, with inputs of fertility, mortality, and migration data. Population uncertainty was estimated by use of out-of-sample predictive validity testing. With these data, we estimated the trends in population by age and sex and in fertility by age between 1950 and 2017 in 195 countries and territories. Findings: From 1950 to 2017, TFRs decreased by 49\ub74% (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 46\ub74–52\ub70). The TFR decreased from 4\ub77 livebirths (4\ub75–4\ub79) to 2\ub74 livebirths (2\ub72–2\ub75), and the ASFR of mothers aged 10–19 years decreased from 37 livebirths (34–40) to 22 livebirths (19–24) per 1000 women. Despite reductions in the TFR, the global population has been increasing by an average of 83\ub78 million people per year since 1985. The global population increased by 197\ub72% (193\ub73–200\ub78) since 1950, from 2\ub76 billion (2\ub75–2\ub76) to 7\ub76 billion (7\ub74–7\ub79) people in 2017; much of this increase was in the proportion of the global population in south Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The global annual rate of population growth increased between 1950 and 1964, when it peaked at 2\ub70%; this rate then remained nearly constant until 1970 and then decreased to 1\ub71% in 2017. Population growth rates in the southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania GBD super-region decreased from 2\ub75% in 1963 to 0\ub77% in 2017, whereas in sub-Saharan Africa, population growth rates were almost at the highest reported levels ever in 2017, when they were at 2\ub77%. The global average age increased from 26\ub76 years in 1950 to 32\ub71 years in 2017, and the proportion of the population that is of working age (age 15–64 years) increased from 59\ub79% to 65\ub73%. At the national level, the TFR decreased in all countries and territories between 1950 and 2017; in 2017, TFRs ranged from a low of 1\ub70 livebirths (95% UI 0\ub79–1\ub72) in Cyprus to a high of 7\ub71 livebirths (6\ub78–7\ub74) in Niger. The TFR under age 25 years (TFU25; number of livebirths expected by age 25 years for a hypothetical woman who survived the age group and was exposed to current ASFRs) in 2017 ranged from 0\ub708 livebirths (0\ub707–0\ub709) in South Korea to 2\ub74 livebirths (2\ub72–2\ub76) in Niger, and the TFR over age 30 years (TFO30; number of livebirths expected for a hypothetical woman ageing from 30 to 54 years who survived the age group and was exposed to current ASFRs) ranged from a low of 0\ub73 livebirths (0\ub73–0\ub74) in Puerto Rico to a high of 3\ub71 livebirths (3\ub70–3\ub72) in Niger. TFO30 was higher than TFU25 in 145 countries and territories in 2017. 33 countries had a negative population growth rate from 2010 to 2017, most of which were located in central, eastern, and western Europe, whereas population growth rates of more than 2\ub70% were seen in 33 of 46 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2017, less than 65% of the national population was of working age in 12 of 34 high-income countries, and less than 50% of the national population was of working age in Mali, Chad, and Niger. Interpretation: Population trends create demographic dividends and headwinds (ie, economic benefits and detriments) that affect national economies and determine national planning needs. Although TFRs are decreasing, the global population continues to grow as mortality declines, with diverse patterns at the national level and across age groups. To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide transparent and replicable estimates of population and fertility, which can be used to inform decision making and to monitor progress. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Nasally inhaled pulsating aerosols: Lung, sinus and nose deposition.

OBJECTIVES: Topical delivery of drugs to the sinuses is challenging and requires also particular administration manoeuvres from the patient. This study was conducted to investigate 1) the delivery efficiency of a pulsating aerosol (Vibrent prototype device) to the sinuses and the nose, 2) the aerosol fraction that will deposit in the lungs and 3) potential differences regarding sinus and nasal deposition ratio when comparing aerosol administration during two different administration routes. METHODS: An open label deposition study in healthy volunteers was conducted using 99mTc-DTPA radiolabeled pulsating aerosols in comparison to nasal pump sprays. Deposition and retention of pulsating aerosols was assessed by gamma camera imaging during spontaneous nasal breathing and during closed soft palate administration. RESULTS: Aerosol administration during nasal breathing vs. application with closed soft plate results in significant lung, nasal and sinus deposition. No significant differences were observed for nasal clearance. In comparison, drug delivery using nasal pump sprays resulted in non-significant sinus, 100 % nasal and non-significant lung deposition. The clearance kinetics after nasal pump spray delivery was significantly accelerated. DISCUSSION: The standard application mode of pulsation aerosols with closed soft palate results in negligible lung deposition and therefore limits drug delivery to the nasal cavity only, minimizing unwanted side effects. Administration during spontaneous nasal breathing shows only 10% lung deposition, which is tolerable during drug administration. Relevant paranasal sinus deposition is noted during both application modes and clearance kinetics remains essentially unchanged. In contrast, nasal pump sprays do not show sinus drug delivery and nasal drug residence time is shortened

Fractionated exhaled breath condensate collection shows high hydrogen peroxide release in the airways.

BACKGROUND: Exhaled breath condensate (EBC) allows noninvasive monitoring of inflammation in the lung. Activation of inflammatory cells results in an increased production of reactive oxygen species, leading to the formation of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)). In addition, cigarette smoking causes an influx of inflammatory cells, and higher levels of H(2)O(2) have been found in EBC of smokers. However, there are still unresolved issues reflected by large variations in exhaled H(2)O(2) and uncertainties about the origin of H(2)O(2) release in the lung. METHODS: We collected EBC as fractionated samples from the airways and from the lung periphery in 10 nonsmokers, eight asymptomatic smokers, and in eight chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, and H(2)O(2) concentration and acidity (pH) were analyzed in the airway and the alveolar fraction. RESULTS: In all subjects studied, H(2)O(2) was 2.6 times higher in the airway versus the alveolar fraction. Airway H(2)O(2) was twofold higher in smokers and fivefold higher in COPD patients compared to nonsmokers. In all study groups, there was no significant difference in deaerated pH between the airway and the alveolar sample. ONCLUSIONS: Exhaled H(2)O(2) is released at higher concentrations from the airways of all subjects studied, implying that the airways may be the dominant location of H(2)O(2) production. Because many lung diseases cause inflammation at different sites of the lung, fractionated sampling of EBC can reduce variability and maintain an anatomical allocation of the exhaled biomarkers

Pulsating aerosols for drug delivery to the sinuses in healthy volunteers.

OBJECTIVE: Approximately 10 to 15 percent of the European and U.S. population have chronic rhinosinusitis, but effective treatment remains a challenge. There has been limited success using topical drug delivery to the nose and the paranasal cavities/sinuses, in part because most nasally administered aerosol drug formulations are efficiently filtered at the nasal valve and fail to reach the osteomeatal area and sinuses. STUDY DESIGN: Feasibility study. SETTING: Nuclear medicine department. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Pulsating airflows were applied to the nasal cavity and sinus ventilation was studied in five healthy human volunteers using dynamic (81m)Kr-gas gamma camera imaging. Furthermore, deposition and retention of (99m)Tc-DTPA radiolabeled aerosols delivered by nasal pump sprays or by pulsating aerosols was assessed in each volunteer over a 24-hour period. RESULTS: Only the pulsating airflow demonstrated efficient (81m)Kr-gas ventilation of the paranasal sinuses. No drug was deposited into the sinuses using nasal pump sprays, but up to 6.5 percent of the nasally administered drug was deposited into the sinuses using pulsating airflow. Clearance kinetics of the drug was reduced after pulsating aerosol delivery compared to nasal pump sprays. Residence time of the drug at the site of deposition was up to three-fold longer with pulsating aerosol delivery than with nasal pump sprays. CONCLUSION: Our data support the hypothesis that topical drug delivery in relevant quantities to the nose and osteomeatal areas, including the paranasal sinuses, is possible using pulsating airflows. Furthermore, the frequency of drug applications may be reduced due to a delayed clearance and longer residence time

Ten scientific messages on risks and opportunities for life in the Antarctic

Initiated by the SCAR scientific research programme “Antarctic Thresholds – Ecosystem Resilience and Adaptation” (AnT-ERA, 2013-2021), 26 experts synthesized knowledge on impacts and risks of climate-change on biological processes and ecosystem functions in the Antarctic. The ten main scientific messages that emerged addressed (1) accelerating marine and terrestrial biogeochemical cycles, (2) response to ocean acidification, (3) ecological changes in climate change hot spots, (4) unexpected dynamism of marine seafloor communities, (5) biodiversity shifts, (6) low temperature limitation of protein synthesis, (7) life intrinsically linked to changing sea ice conditions, (8) pollution, (9) genetically distinct terrestrial populations under threat, and (10) newly discovered habitats. Two-thirds of the literature included in this synthesis was published between 2010 and 2020 and only one-third was published earlier. The fast mounting, recent decadal evidence indicates various Antarctic biological communities now experience climate stress, or will experience such stress in the coming decades. The responses of organisms, ecosystem functions and services to environmental changes are complex and varied. Key knowledge gaps remain and need addressing to adequately assess future prospects for life in the Antarctic