Off-Site Mitigation and the EIS Threshold: NEPA\u27s Faulty Framework

Only a comprehensive EIS will ensure that agencies adopt the safest and most effective off-site mitigation measures. The CEQ regulations support this view and discourage FONSIs justified by off-site mitigation except in limited circumstances. To encourage full disclosure and public participation in the NEPA process the CEQ, in Forty Questions, mandates the preparation of an EIS whenever an action may have significant impacts on the environment regardless of mitigation unless such measures are imposed by law or included in the original proposal. Hopefully, the CEQ regulations will be amended so that the courts can regard this proposal as binding on the agencies. The present NEPA procedural framework allows and even encourages both agencies and courts to engage in cursory and inadequate review of off-site mitigation. A legal distinction between on-site and offsite mitigation must be acknowledged in order to improve the decisionmaking process. While it is undeniable that mitigation should remain an agency option to be utilized to avoid preparing a FONSI, the circumstances under which this can be done need to be clearly outlined. Only then will judicial review of these proposals assure that NEPA\u27s substantive mandate is satisfied

A Simulated Annealing Algorithm for the Optimization of Multistage Depressed Collector Efficiency

The microwave traveling wave tube amplifier (TWTA) is widely used as a high-power transmitting source for space and airborne communications. One critical factor in designing a TWTA is the overall efficiency. However, overall efficiency is highly dependent upon collector efficiency; so collector design is critical to the performance of a TWTA. Therefore, NASA Glenn Research Center has developed an optimization algorithm based on Simulated Annealing to quickly design highly efficient multi-stage depressed collectors (MDC)

Genetic Diversity of Near Genome-Wide Hepatitis C Virus Sequences during Chronic Infection: Evidence for Protein Structural Conservation Over Time

Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the leading causes of chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and end-stage liver disease worldwide. The genetics of HCV infection in humans and the disease course of chronic hepatitis C are both remarkably variable. Although the response to interferon treatment is largely dependent on HCV genotypes, whether or not a relationship exists between HCV genome variability and clinical course of hepatitis C disease still remains unknown. To more thoroughly understand HCV genome evolution over time in association with disease course, near genome-wide HCV genomes present in 9 chronically infected participants over 83 total study years were sequenced. Overall, within HCV genomes, the number of synonymous substitutions per synonymous site (dS) significantly exceeded the number of non-synonymous substitutions per site (dN). Although both dS and dN significantly increased with duration of chronic infection, there was a highly significant decrease in dN/dS ratio in HCV genomes over time. These results indicate that purifying selection acted to conserve viral protein structure despite persistence of high level of nucleotide mutagenesis inherent to HCV replication. Based on liver biopsy fibrosis scores, HCV genomes from participants with advanced fibrosis had significantly greater dS values and lower dN/dS ratios compared to participants with mild liver disease. Over time, viral genomes from participants with mild disease had significantly greater annual changes in dN, along with higher dN/dS ratios, compared to participants with advanced fibrosis. Yearly amino acid variations in the HCV p7, NS2, NS3 and NS5B genes were all significantly lower in participants with severe versus mild disease, suggesting possible pathogenic importance of protein structural conservation for these viral gene products

Mitigation and screening for environmental assessment

This article considers how, as a matter of law and policy, mitigation measures should be taken into account in determining whether a project will have significant environmental effects and therefore be subject to assessment under the EU Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive. This is not straightforward: it is problematic to distinguish clearly between an activity and the measures proposed to minimise or mitigate for the adverse consequences of the activity. The issue is a salient one in impact assessment law, but under-explored in the literature and handled with some difficulty by the courts. I argue that there is an unnecessarily and undesirably narrow approach currently taken under the EIA Directive, which could be improved upon by taking a more adaptive approach; alternatively a heightened standard of review of ‘significance’, and within this of the scope for mitigation measures to bring projects beneath the significance threshold, may also be desirable

Vision in high-level football officials

YesOfficiating in football depends, at least to some extent, upon adequate visual function. However, there is no vision standard for football officiating and the nature of the relationship between officiating performance and level of vision is unknown. As a first step in characterising this relationship, we report on the clinically-measured vision and on the perceived level of vision in elite-level, Portuguese football officials. Seventy-one referees (R) and assistant referees (AR) participated in the study, representing 92% of the total population of elite level football officials in Portugal in the 2013/2014 season. Nine of the 22 Rs (40.9%) and ten of the 49 ARs (20.4%) were international-level. Information about visual history was also gathered. Perceived vision was assessed using the preference-values-assigned-to-global-visual-status (PVVS) and the Quality-of-Vision (QoV) questionnaire. Standard clinical vision measures (including visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and stereopsis) were gathered in a subset (n = 44, 62%) of the participants. Data were analysed according to the type (R/AR) and level (international/national) of official, and Bonferroni corrections were applied to reduce the risk of type I errors. Adopting criterion for statistical significance of p<0.01, PVVS scores did not differ between R and AR (p = 0.88), or between national- and international-level officials (p = 0.66). Similarly, QoV scores did not differ between R and AR in frequency (p = 0.50), severity (p = 0.71) or bothersomeness (p = 0.81) of symptoms, or between international-level vs national-level officials for frequency (p = 0.03) or bothersomeness (p = 0.07) of symptoms. However, international-level officials reported less severe symptoms than their national-level counterparts (p<0.01). Overall, 18.3% of officials had either never had an eye examination or if they had, it was more than 3 years previously. Regarding refractive correction, 4.2% had undergone refractive surgery and 23.9% wear contact lenses when officiating. Clinical vision measures in the football officials were similar to published normative values for young, adult populations and similar between R and AR. Clinically-measured vision did not differ according to officiating level. Visual acuity measured with and without a pinhole disc indicated that around one quarter of participants may be capable of better vision when officiating, as evidenced by better acuity (≥1 line of letters) using the pinhole. Amongst the clinical visual tests we used, we did not find evidence for above-average performance in elite-level football officials. Although the impact of uncorrected mild to moderate refractive error upon officiating performance is unknown, with a greater uptake of eye examinations, visual acuity may be improved in around a quarter of officials.Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) in the framework of the Strategic Funding UID/FIS/04650/2013

THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE INTENSITY ON INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE

R.M. Houser, C.K. Tang, S.O. Henry, R. Bulson Pacific University, Forest Grove, OR Glaucoma is the second leading cause of irreversible blindness, afflicting millions of people worldwide. Previous research suggests physical exercise may have promising, beneficial effects on intraocular pressure (IOP), one of the major risk factors for glaucoma. However, there is a notable lack of research on the differential effects of various exercise intensities on IOP. PURPOSE: To determine the acute effects of exercise intensity on IOP. METHODS: Fourteen volunteer participants (6 male, 8 female; 20.1 ± 1.10 years of age; 70.31 ± 13.50 kg mass; 171.45 ± 8.50 cm stature) with normal IOP (17.03 ± 3.15 mmHg) completed the study. Each participant completed a standardized step test to estimate VO2 max, which was used to prescribe individualized treadmill speeds representing three exercise intensities (45%, 65%, and 95% VO2 max). In a random and repeated design, participants completed 2.0 km at each intensity. This experimental design isolated power (exercise intensity) as the variable of interest, while holding total work constant for each condition (2.0 km). Baseline IOP, heart rate, and blood pressure were measured prior to each exercise intensity and again at time 0, 5, 10, and 20 minutes post-exercise. Time 0 IOP data was used for analysis. Repeated measures one-way ANOVA with post hoc tests compared IOP (time 0) for the four levels of exercise intensity (rest/baseline, low, moderate, high). RESULTS: High intensity exercise reduced IOP (12.94 ± 2.20 mmHg) as compared to baseline (p=0.001), moderate intensity (IOP = 14.96 ± 2.04 mmHg, p\u3c0.001), and low intensity (IOP = 15.91 ± 2.94 mmHg, p=0.004). Neither moderate intensity nor low intensity exercise lowered IOP as compared to baseline. CONCLUSION: High intensity exercise was the only condition associated with an acute reduction of IOP. Therefore, high intensity exercise regimens may be necessary to elicit meaningful, albeit transient, reductions in IOP. As this study only investigated the acute effects of exercise intensity, it would be beneficial to examine the chronic effects of exercise on IOP. The project was supported by the Pacific University College of Arts and Science Research Grant

ACUTE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE: IMMEDIATE DEPRESSION AND SUBSEQUENT ELEVATION OF INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE

A. Casayuran, S. Henry, R. Bulson, M. Czerwinski, L. Bassik Pacific University, Forest Grove, OR Intraocular pressure (IOP), the fluid pressure within the eye, is the main treatable risk factor for glaucoma. Although numerous research studies have shown IOP is decreased immediately following exercise, very few studies have addressed IOP alterations during recovery and return to baseline. PURPOSE: To investigate the acute effects of exercise intensity on IOP, including return to baseline. METHODS: Nineteen (9 males, 10 females; age = 20.26 ± 0.87 years; stature = 172.27 ± 13.51cm; mass = 72.23 ± 16.64 kg) with no history of ocular hypertension or glaucoma completed the study. Baseline measurements of heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and IOP were assessed. Participants completed Queen’s College Step Test to estimate VO2 max and prescribe treadmill speeds for 2.0 km at each intensity to keep work performed constant. Measurements continued immediately after exercise, and in 10 min intervals until IOP returned to within 10% of stable baseline value. Repeated measures ANOVA and post hoc tests compared IOP for baseline, moderate, and high intensity exercise. RESULTS: Immediately following high intensity exercise, IOP was reduced (12.27 ± 4.7 mmHg) compared to either baseline (16.25 ± 4.19 mmHg, pCONCLUSION:High intensity exercise elicited an immediate and transient decrease in IOP, in agreement with existing research. However, a subsequent elevation of IOP, or overshoot, also occurred during the recovery period of both exercise conditions. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to document the transient elevation of IOP that occurs during recovery from exercise