Institutional Change in Market-Liberal State Capitalism : An Integrative Perspective on the Development of the Private Business Sector in China

This paper shows that a more accurate depiction of the development of China’s private sector is gained by considering the complex interaction between bottom-up and topdown processes. First, the paper analyzes the general characteristics of Chinese capitalism to help understand and classify the gradual institutional change in the enterprise sector. Second, it draws on insights from comparative political economy and new approaches in political science to introduce the strategy of “wearing a red hat,” an empirical phenomenon that provides a framework for the emergence from the 1980s of China’s private sector. This section also examines the closely interwoven relationships between private companies and the party-state that have taken place since the 1990s. Third, the paper indicates that focusing on state/capital relationships at different administrational levels contributes to a better understanding of China’s private sector. It concludes that the development and success of the new private enterprises, which remained closely linked to the state, enabled the ruling elite to form and consolidate a hegemonic project that provided relative societal coherence on the often bumpy road to reform.Dieser Artikel zeigt auf, dass ein Blick auf die komplexen Interaktionen zwischen „Bottom- up“- und „Top-down“-Prozessen ein präziseres Bild der Entwicklung des Privatsektors in China liefert. Dabei hilft erstens eine Analyse von grundlegenden Merkmalen des chinesischen Kapitalismus, um den graduellen institutionellen Wandel im Unternehmenssektor verstehen beziehungsweise einordnen zu können. Unter Bezugnahme auf die Vergleichende Politische Ökonomie und neuere politikwissenschaftliche Ansätze werden, zweitens, die empirischen Phänomene des „wearing a red hat“ in der Entstehungsphase des Privatsektors ab den 1980ern sowie der seitdem eng verknüpften Beziehungen zwischen Privatunternehmen und dem Parteistaat eingeführt. Drittens wird erörtert, dass ein Fokus auf die engen Beziehungen zwischen Staat und Kapital auf verschiedenen administrativen Ebenen zu einem besseren Verständnis des chinesischen Privatsektors beiträgt. Wie abschließend festgehalten wird, ermöglichte die Entwicklung und der Erfolg der neuen privaten, jedoch weiterhin eng mit dem Staat verbundenen Unternehmen es der Machtelite, ein hegemoniales Projekt zu formieren und aufrechtzuerhalten, das dem holprigen Reformweg eine relative gesellschaftliche Stabilität verlieh

The function of the NADPH thioredoxin reductase C-2-Cys peroxiredoxin system in plastid redox regulation and signalling

Protein disulphide–dithiol interchange is a universal mechanism of redox regulation in which thioredoxins (Trxs) play an essential role. In heterotrophic organisms, and non-photosynthetic plant organs, NADPH provides the required reducing power in a reaction catalysed by NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase (NTR). It has been considered that chloroplasts constitute an exception because reducing equivalents for redox regulation in this organelle is provided by ferredoxin (Fd) reduced by the photosynthetic electron transport chain, not by NADPH. This view was modified by the discovery of a chloroplast-localised NTR, denoted NTRC, a bimodular enzyme formed by NTR and Trx domains with high affinity for NADPH. In this review, we will summarize the present knowledge of the biochemical properties of NTRC and discuss the implications of this enzyme on plastid redox regulation in plants.Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación de España y Fondos FEDER de la Comisión Europea. BIO2010-15430Junta de Andalucía. BIO-182 y CVI-591

Cyt c6-3: A new isoform of photosynthetic Cyt c6 exclusive to heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria

All known cyanobacteria contain Cyt c6, a small soluble electron carrier protein whose main function is to transfer electrons from the Cyt b6 f complex to PSI, although it is also involved in respiration. We have previously described a second isoform of this protein, the Cyt c6-like, whose function remains unknown. Here we describe a third isoform of Cyt c6 (here called Cytc6-3), which is only found in heterocyst- forming filamentous cyanobacteria. Cyt c6-3 is expressed in vegetative cells but is specifically repressed in heterocysts cells under diazotrophic growth conditions. Although there is a close structural similarity between Cyt c6-3 and Cyt c6 related to the general protein folding, Cyt c6-3 presents differential electrostatic surface features as compared with Cyt c6, its expression is not copper dependent and has a low reactivity towards PSI. According to the different expression pattern, functional reactivity and structural properties, Cyt c6-3 has to play an as yet to be defined regulatory role related to heterocyst differentiation.Fundación de Investigación de la Universidad de Sevilla FIUS05710000Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad BIO2012-35271, BIO2015-64169-PJunta de Andalucía PAIDI BIO-02

The photosynthetic cytochrome c550 from the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

The photosynthetic cytochrome c550 from the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum has been purified and characterized. Cytochrome c550 is mostly obtained from the soluble cell extract in relatively large amounts. In addition, the protein appeared to be truncated in the last hydrophobic residues of the C-terminus, both in the soluble cytochrome c550 and in the protein extracted from the membrane fraction, as deduced by mass spectrometry analysis and the comparison with the gene sequence. Interestingly, it has been described that the C-terminus of cytochrome c550 forms a hydrophobic finger involved in the interaction with photosystem II in cyanobacteria. Cytochrome c550 was almost absent in solubilized photosystem II complex samples, in contrast with the PsbO and Psb31 extrinsic subunits, thus suggesting a lower affinity of cytochrome c550 for the photosystem II complex. Under iron-limiting conditions the amount of cytochrome c550 decreases up to about 45% as compared to iron-replete cells, pointing to an iron-regulated synthesis. Oxidized cytochrome c550 has been characterized using continuous wave EPR and pulse techniques, including HYSCORE, and the obtained results have been interpreted in terms of the electrostatic charge distribution in the surroundings of the heme centre.España, MINECO BIO2012-35271, BIO2015-64169-P, MAT2011-23861 and CTQ2015-64486-

The photosynthetic cytochrome c 550 from the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

The photosynthetic cytochrome c550 from the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum has been purified and characterized. Cytochrome c550 is mostly obtained from the soluble cell extract in relatively large amounts. In addition, the protein appeared to be truncated in the last hydrophobic residues of the C-terminus, both in the soluble cytochrome c550 and in the protein extracted from the membrane fraction, as deduced by mass spectrometry analysis and the comparison with the gene sequence. Interestingly, it has been described that the C-terminus of cytochrome c550 forms a hydrophobic finger involved in the interaction with photosystem II in cyanobacteria. Cytochrome c550 was almost absent in solubilized photosystem II complex samples, in contrast with the PsbO and Psb31 extrinsic subunits, thus suggesting a lower affinity of cytochrome c550 for the photosystem II complex. Under iron-limiting conditions the amount of cytochrome c550 decreases up to about 45% as compared to iron-replete cells, pointing to an iron-regulated synthesis. Oxidized cytochrome c550 has been characterized using continuous wave EPR and pulse techniques, including HYSCORE, and the obtained results have been interpreted in terms of the electrostatic charge distribution in the surroundings of the heme centre.This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (BIO2012-35271, BIO2015-64169-P, MAT2011-23861 and CTQ2015-64486-R) the Andalusian Government (PAIDI BIO-022) and the Aragón Government (Grupo consolidado B-18). All these grants were partially financed by the EU FEDER ProgramPeer reviewe

Overoxidation of chloroplast 2-Cys peroxiredoxins: balancing toxic and signaling activities of hydrogen peroxide

Photosynthesis, the primary source of biomass and oxygen into the biosphere, involves the transport of electrons in the presence of oxygen and, therefore, chloroplasts constitute an important source of reactive oxygen species, including hydrogen peroxide. If accumulated at high level, hydrogen peroxide may exert a toxic effect; however, it is as well an important second messenger. In order to balance the toxic and signaling activities of hydrogen peroxide its level has to be tightly controlled. To this end, chloroplasts are equipped with different antioxidant systems such as 2-Cys peroxiredoxins (2-Cys Prxs), thiol-based peroxidases able to reduce hydrogen and organic peroxides. At high peroxide concentrations the peroxidase function of 2-Cys Prxs may become inactivated through a process of overoxidation. This inactivation has been proposed to explain the signaling function of hydrogen peroxide in eukaryotes, whereas in prokaryotes, the 2-Cys Prxs of which were considered to be insensitive to overoxidation, the signaling activity of hydrogen peroxide is less relevant. Here we discuss the current knowledge about the mechanisms controlling 2-Cys Prx overoxidation in chloroplasts, organelles with an important signaling function in plants. Given the prokaryotic origin of chloroplasts, we discuss the occurrence of 2-Cys Prx overoxidation in cyanobacteria with the aim of identifying similarities between chloroplasts and their ancestors regarding their response to hydrogen peroxide.España , Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación BIO2010-15430España, Junta de Andalucía BIO-182España, Junta de Andalucía CVI-591

The function of the NADPH thioredoxin reductase C-2-Cys peroxiredoxin system in plastid redox regulation and signalling

AbstractProtein disulphide–dithiol interchange is a universal mechanism of redox regulation in which thioredoxins (Trxs) play an essential role. In heterotrophic organisms, and non-photosynthetic plant organs, NADPH provides the required reducing power in a reaction catalysed by NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase (NTR). It has been considered that chloroplasts constitute an exception because reducing equivalents for redox regulation in this organelle is provided by ferredoxin (Fd) reduced by the photosynthetic electron transport chain, not by NADPH. This view was modified by the discovery of a chloroplast-localised NTR, denoted NTRC, a bimodular enzyme formed by NTR and Trx domains with high affinity for NADPH. In this review, we will summarize the present knowledge of the biochemical properties of NTRC and discuss the implications of this enzyme on plastid redox regulation in plants

The contribution of glutathione peroxidases to chloroplast redox homeostasis in Arabidopsis

Oxidizing signals mediated by the thiol-dependent peroxidase activity of 2-Cys peroxiredoxins (PRXs) plays an essential role in fine-tuning chloroplast redox balance in response to changes in light intensity, a function that depends on NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase C (NTRC). In addition, plant chloroplasts are equipped with glutathione peroxidases (GPXs), thiol-dependent peroxidases that rely on thioredoxins (TRXs). Despite having a similar reaction mechanism than 2-Cys PRXs, the contribution of oxidizing signals mediated by GPXs to the chloroplast redox homeostasis remains poorly known. To address this issue, we have generated the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) double mutant gpx1gpx7, which is devoid of the two GPXs, 1 and 7, localized in the chloroplast. Furthermore, to analyze the functional relationship of chloroplast GPXs with the NTRC-2-Cys PRXs redox system, the 2cpab-gpx1gpx7 and ntrc-gpx1gpx7 mutants were generated. The gpx1gpx7 mutant displayed wild type-like phenotype indicating that chloroplast GPXs are dispensable for plant growth at least under standard conditions. However, the 2cpab-gpx1gpx7 showed more retarded growth than the 2cpab mutant. The simultaneous lack of 2-Cys PRXs and GPXs affected PSII performance and caused higher delay of enzyme oxidation in the dark. In contrast, the ntrc-gpx1gpx7 mutant combining the lack of NTRC and chloroplast GPXs behaved like the ntrc mutant indicating that the contribution of GPXs to chloroplast redox homeostasis is independent of NTRC. Further supporting this notion, in vitro assays showed that GPXs are not reduced by NTRC but by TRX y2. Based on these results, we propose a role for GPXs in the chloroplast redox hierarchy

The contribution of glutathione peroxidases to chloroplast redox homeostasis in Arabidopsis

Oxidizing signals mediated by the thiol-dependent peroxidase activity of 2-Cys peroxiredoxins (PRXs) plays an essential role in fine-tuning chloroplast redox balance in response to changes in light intensity, a function that depends on NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase C (NTRC). In addition, plant chloroplasts are equipped with glutathione peroxidases (GPXs), thiol-dependent peroxidases that rely on thioredoxins (TRXs). Despite having a similar reaction mechanism than 2-Cys PRXs, the contribution of oxidizing signals mediated by GPXs to the chloroplast redox homeostasis remains poorly known. To address this issue, we have generated the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) double mutant gpx1gpx7, which is devoid of the two GPXs, 1 and 7, localized in the chloroplast. Furthermore, to analyze the functional relationship of chloroplast GPXs with the NTRC-2-Cys PRXs redox system, the 2cpab-gpx1gpx7 and ntrc-gpx1gpx7 mutants were generated. The gpx1gpx7 mutant displayed wild type-like phenotype indicating that chloroplast GPXs are dispensable for plant growth at least under standard conditions. However, the 2cpab-gpx1gpx7 showed more retarded growth than the 2cpab mutant. The simultaneous lack of 2-Cys PRXs and GPXs affected PSII performance and caused higher delay of enzyme oxidation in the dark. In contrast, the ntrc-gpx1gpx7 mutant combining the lack of NTRC and chloroplast GPXs behaved like the ntrc mutant indicating that the contribution of GPXs to chloroplast redox homeostasis is independent of NTRC. Further supporting this notion, in vitro assays showed that GPXs are not reduced by NTRC but by TRX y2. Based on these results, we propose a role for GPXs in the chloroplast redox hierarchy.This work was supported by Grant PID2020-115156 GB-I00 funded by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación/Agencia Estatal de Investigación/10.13039/501100011033. A.C. was supported by a FPU pre-doctoral contract (FPU18-03035) from Ministerio de Universidades (Spain).Peer reviewe

Latvian Cultural Identity as a Theme of the Culturology at the Secondary School

Diplomdarba tēma “Latvijas kultūras identitāte kā tēma kulturoloģijā vidusskolā”. Pētījuma problēma ir, kā skolēniem atklāt tēmu “Latvijas kultūras identitāte” saistošā veidā, lai veidotos nacionālā pašapziņa, lepnums, patriotisms uz vietu, kurā mēs dzīvojam. Darba mērķis ir izveidot mācību materiāla kopumu, kuru realizējot skolēns iegūst izpratni par notiekošajiem kultūras procesiem, tos sasaistot ar sevi un savu lomu sabiedrībā Latvijas, Eiropas un pasaules kontekstā, kā arī rosinātu uz nākotnes profesijas izvēli, jaunu ideju un iespēju meklēšanu un vēlmi sadarbojoties ar citiem cilvēkiem, stiprinot Latvijas kultūru un identitāti. Pirmajā nodaļā veidota teorētiskā bāze darba tēmai mācību stundās. Otrajā nodaļā piedāvāti risinājumi septiņām mācību stundām par Latvijas kultūras identitāti, skaidrojot, izmanotās metodes, stundas mērķus un uzdevumus, vērtēšanas sistēmu, kā arī raksturotas mācību prakses iegūtās zināšanas Rīgas Doma kora skolā. Atslēgvārdi: identitāte, kultūra, valsts nācija, globalizācija, mācību metodes.The title of the thesis is “Latvian Cultural Identity as a Theme of the Culturology Subject at the Secondary School”. The aim of the research is to reveal the theme “Latvian Cultural Identity” to the students in an exciting manner in order to develop national pride, self-confidence and patriotism towards the place where we live in. The aim is to create a set of teaching tools which assist the students to get better comprehension of the cultural developments and understanding of mutual interrelationships so that they can find their proper place in the society of Latvia, Europe and globally, as well as to encourage them to select a future profession, to search for the new ideas and possibilities and to cooperate with others in order to strengthen Latvian cultural identity. The first chapter is created as a theoretical background for the lessons. The second chapter offers description of the practical implementation of the seven lessons on the theme “Latvian cultural identity” explaining applied teaching methods, aims, goals, tasks and evaluation procedure. It describes acquired knowledge during the teaching practice at the Riga Dome Choir School. Key words: identity, culture, nation state, globalization, teaching methods