Automatic analysis of multiple Beerkan infiltration experiments for soil Hydraulic Characterization

The BEST (Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters) procedure of soil hydraulic characterization appears promising for intensively sample field areas with a reasonable effort both in terms of equipment and time passed in the field. Two alternative algorithms, i.e. BEST-slope and BEST-intercept, have been suggested to determine soil sorptivity and field-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity from a simply measured cumulative infiltration curve. With both algorithms, calculations have to be repeated also many times, depending on the number of collected infiltration data, that should vary between eight and 15. The need to consider a varying number of infiltration data is related to the fact that the infiltration model used in BEST is valid for the transient phase of the process, and only experimental data representative of this phase of the infiltration process have to be selected. The fitting of the theoretical model to the data is carried out by minimizing the sum of the squared residuals between estimated and measured infiltration data. Therefore, analyzing a single run may demand a lot of time, since many calculations have to be carried out. This circumstance complicates soil hydraulic characterization based on an intensive soil sampling, and it also increases the risk to make mistakes. These problems are expected to be substantially reduced, or even eliminated, if an automatic procedure of data analysis is applied. The general objective of this investigation was to develop an automatic data processing tool to easily and rapidly analyze databases including several BEST runs. The developed tool makes use of the Microsoft Excel Solver add-in routine. A Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) macro was written to automate creation and manipulation of Microsoft Excel Solver models. A looping structure was used in the VBA macro to automate data analysis of BEST experiments. The developed tool can be viewed as a practically useful contribution to an expeditious, intensive soil hydraulic characterization, also in terms of analysis of the collected data

Improvement of BEST (Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters) method for soil hydraulic characterization

Interpreting and modeling soil hydrological processes require the determination of the soil hydraulic characteristic curves, i.e. the relationships between volumetric soil water content, pressure head, and hydraulic conductivity. Using traditional methods to determine these properties is expensive and time consuming. Haverkamp et al. (1996) pioneered a specific method for soil hydraulic characterization known as the “Beerkan method”. An improved version of this methodology, called the Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters (BEST) procedure, was developed by Lassabatère et al. (2006) to simplify soil hydraulic characterization. BEST considers certain analytic formulae for hydraulic characteristic curves and estimates their shape parameters, which are texture dependent, from particle-size analysis by physical-empirical pedotransfer functions. Structure dependent scale parameters are estimated by a three-dimensional field infiltration experiment at zero pressure head, using the two-term transient infiltration equation by Haverkamp et al. (1994). BEST is very attractive for practical use since it substantially facilitates the hydraulic characterization of unsaturated soils, and it is gaining popularity in soil science. The signs of a promising ability of the BEST procedure to yield a reasonably reliable soil hydraulic characterization can be found in the existing literature but there is still work to do. In fact, several problems yet arise with the BEST method, including: (1) the need to carry out many calculations to analyze a single run, which may demand a lot of time; (2) the need to analyze the transient phase of the infiltration process, which may be uncertain for different reasons; (3) the absence of an extensive assessment of the BEST predictions against independent measurements, i.e. with soil data collected by other experimental methods; and (4) the possible sensitivity of the data to soil disturbance and air entrapment during repeated water application, according to the BEST experimental procedure. The main objective of the present thesis was to study and improve the BEST method in order to understand or give a solution to all the former problems and consequently to contribute towards its widespread application throughout the world. With this aim, improvements to BEST method were proposed in terms of analysis of the collected data, estimation of hydrodynamic parameters and automation of the experimental procedure. In particular, a workbook to easily and rapidly analyze databases including several BEST runs, an alternative algorithm to analyze the Beerkan infiltration data and a compact infiltrometer to automate data collection with open source technology were developed. The proposed workbook is a practically useful contribution to an expeditious, intensive soil hydraulic characterization. The alternative algorithm can be considered a promising alternative procedure to analyze the Beerkan infiltration data. Finally, the cheap and automated infiltrometer constitutes a very cost effective alternative to previous proposed equipment. Moreover, BEST was tested in different soils and compared with several alternative field and laboratory methodologies highlighting the pros and cons that characterize the method and allowing to design BEST as a promising, easy, robust, and inexpensive way of characterizing soil hydraulic behavior. The main result of these studies was that BEST yields physically possible scale parameters of the soil characteristic curves in most of the replicated infiltration runs. Moreover, the water retention model used by BEST reproduced satisfactorily the laboratory data. Possible saturated soil hydraulic conductivity values were also obtained. The dependence of the measured hydrodynamic parameters on the experimental procedure used in BEST was also studied with the objective to improve our ability to interpret the field data and the linked hydrological processes. These studies led to the main conclusion that the choice of the procedure should vary with the intended use of the data. If the objective of the field campaign is to obtain data usable to explain surface runoff generation phenomena during intense rainfall events, for example, the most appropriate choice among the tested ones should be a perturbative run, to mimic relatively prolonged rainfall effects on the soil surface. A less perturbative run is more appropriate to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity of a soil that is not directly impacted by rainfall, due for example to the presence of a mulching on the soil surface. Finally, a simplified method based on a Beerkan infiltration run to determine the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity by only a transient infiltration process was developed. This method is a good candidate method for intensive field campaign with a practically sustainable experimental effort

BEST-2K Method for Characterizing Dual-Permeability Unsaturated Soils with Ponded and Tension Infiltrometers

This study presents a new method (BEST-2K) that extends the existing BEST methods for use in characterizing the water retention and hydraulic conductivity functions of matrix and fast-flow regions in dual-permeability soils. BEST-2K requires input information from two water infiltration experiments that are performed under ponded (Beerkan) and unsaturated (tension infiltrometer) conditions at the surface. Other required inputs include water content measurements and the traditional BEST inputs (particle size distribution and bulk density). In this study, first, a flowchart of the BEST-2K method was developed and illustrated with analytically generated data for a synthetic dual-permeability soil. Next, a sensitivity analysis was performed to assess the accuracy of BEST-2K and its sensitivity to the quality of the inputs (water contents and cumulative infiltrations, and the prior estimation of the volume ratio occupied by the fast-flow region). Lastly, BEST-2K was applied to real experimental data to characterize three soils that are prone to preferential flow. BEST-2K was found to be a particularly useful tool that combines experimental and modeling approaches for characterizing dual-permeability soils and, more generally, soils prone to preferential flows

Using Beerkan experiments to estimate hydraulic conductivity of a crusted loamy soil in a Mediterranean vineyard

In bare soils of semi-arid areas, surface crusting is a rather common phenomenon due to the impact of raindrops. Water infiltration measurements under ponding conditions are becoming largely applied techniques for an approximate characterization of crusted soils. In this study, the impact of crusting on soil hydraulic conductivity was assessed in a Mediterranean vineyard (western Sicily, Italy) under conventional tillage. The BEST (Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters) algorithm was applied to the infiltration data to obtain the hydraulic conductivity of crusted and uncrusted soils. Soil hydraulic conductivity was found to vary during the year and also spatially (i.e., rows vs. inter-rows) due to crusting, tillage and vegetation cover. A 55 mm rainfall event resulted in a decrease of the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, Ks, by a factor of 1.6 in the inter-row areas, due to the formation of a crusted layer at the surface. The same rainfall event did not determine a Ks reduction in the row areas (i.e., Ks decreased by a non-significant factor of 1.05) because the vegetation cover intercepted the raindrops and therefore prevented alteration of the soil surface. The developed ring insertion methodology on crusted soil, implying pre-moistening through the periphery of the sampled surface, together with the very small insertion depth of the ring (0.01 m), prevented visible fractures. Consequently, Beerkan tests carried out along and between the vine-rows and data analysis by the BEST algorithm allowed to assess crusting-dependent reductions in hydraulic conductivity with extemporaneous measurements alone. The reliability of the tested technique was also confirmed by the results of the numerical simulation of the infiltration process in a crusted soil. Testing the Beerkan infiltration run in other crusted soils and establishing comparisons with other experimental methodologies appear advisable to increase confidence on the reliability of the method that seems suitable for simple characterization of crusted soils

Straw mulch as a sustainable solution to decrease runoff and erosion in glyphosate-treated clementine plantations in Eastern Spain. An assessment using rainfall simulation experiments

[EN] In many Mediterranean areas, citrus orchards exhibit high soil loss rates because of the expansion of drip irrigation that allows cultivation on sloping terrain and the widespread use of glyphosate. To mitigate these non-sustainable soil losses, straw mulch could be applied as an efficient solution but this has been poorly studied. Therefore, the main goal of this paper was to assess the use of straw mulch as a tool to reduce soil losses in clementine plantations, which can be considered representative of a typical Mediterranean citrus orchard. A total of 40 rainfall simulation experiments were carried out on 20 pairs of neighbouring bare and mulched plots. Each experiment involved applying 38.8 mm of rain at a constant rate over 1 h to a circular plot of 0.28 m(2) circular plots. The results showed that a cover of 50% of straw (60 g m(-2)) was able to delay the time to ponding from 32 to 52 s and the time to runoff initiation from 57 to 129 s. Also, the mulching reduced the runoff coefficient from 65.6 to 50.5%. The effect on sediment transport was even more pronounced, as the straw mulch reduced the sediment concentration from 16.7 g l(-1) to 3.6 g l(-1) and the soil erosion rates from 439 g to 73 g. Our results indicated that mulching can be used as a useful management practice to control soil erosion rates due to the immediate effect on high soil detachment rate and runoff initiation reduction in conventional clementine orchards on sloping land, by slowing down runoff initiation and by reducing runoff generation and, especially, sediment losses. We indirectly concluded that straw mulch is also a sustainable solution in glyphosate-treated citrus plantations.This paper is part of the results of research projects GL2008-02879/BTE, LEDDRA 243857 and RECARE-FP7 (ENV.2013.6.2-4).Keesstra, S.; Rodrigo-Comino, J.; Novara, A.; Giménez Morera, A.; Pulido, M.; Di Prima, S.; Cerda, A. (2019). Straw mulch as a sustainable solution to decrease runoff and erosion in glyphosate-treated clementine plantations in Eastern Spain. An assessment using rainfall simulation experiments. CATENA. 174:95-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.11.007S9510317

Effects of Zeolite and Deficit Irrigation on Sweet Pepper Growth

The use of zeolites in agriculture as a soil conditioner is becoming an important field of research in crop growth. To study the effect of synthetic zeolites and deficit irrigation on sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivation, an experiment was conducted in a controlled environment. In particular, sweet peppers were cultivated in a glasshouse using polypropylene pots filled with sandy loam soil, to which 2% zeolite was added. The zeolite employed in the experiments was obtained using coal fly ash as a raw material. The experiment consisted of two main treatments: (a) soil with a zeolite at 2% (Z) and (b) soil without a zeolite as a control (C). Three subplot treatments consisted of (1) full irrigation at 100% of the available water content (AWC) (100); (2) deficit irrigation at 70% of the AWC (70); and (3) deficit irrigation at 50% of the AWC (50). Sweet pepper cultivation started on 24 April 2023 and lasted until 23 June 2023; during the trial, the environmental data, such as the soil humidity, air temperature, and relative humidity, and some crop parameters, such as the plant height, leaf number, and the SPAD index, were monitored. At the end of the trial, the fresh and dry plant weights, the dry matter content, and the leaf water potential were measured. The results showed that, for the plant fresh weight and dry matter content, no significant differences were observed in the treatments and their interactions, whereas, for the other parameters, the statistical analysis showed significant differences. The study suggests that the soil’s structural benefits, resulting from zeolite application, are not followed by an equal positive effect in terms of sweet pepper growth under deficit irrigation conditions

Comparing Beerkan infiltration tests with rainfall simulation experiments for hydraulic characterization of a sandy-loam soil

[EN] Saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, K-s, data collected by ponding infiltrometer methods and usual experimental procedures could be unusable for interpreting field hydrological processes and particularly rainfall infiltration. The K-s values determined by an infiltrometer experiment carried out by applying water at a relatively large distance from the soil surface could however be more appropriate to explain surface runoff generation phenomena during intense rainfall events. In this study, a link between rainfall simulation and ponding infiltrometer experiments was established for a sandy-loam soil. The height of water pouring for the infiltrometer run was chosen, establishing a similarity between the gravitational potential energy of the applied water, E-p, and the rainfall kinetic energy, E-k. To test the soundness of this procedure, the soil was sampled with the Beerkan estimation of soil transfer parameters procedure of soil hydraulic characterization and two heights of water pouring (0.03m, i.e., usual procedure, and 0.34m, yielding E-p=E-k). Then, a comparison between experimental steady-state infiltration rates, i(sR), measured with rainfall simulation experiments determining runoff production and K-s values for the two water pouring heights was carried out in order to discriminate between theoretically possible (i(sR)K(s)) and impossible (i(sR)3.0.co;2-vCerdà, A. (1999). Seasonal and spatial variations in infiltration rates in badland surfaces under Mediterranean climatic conditions. Water Resources Research, 35(1), 319-328. doi:10.1029/98wr01659Cerdà, A. (2000). Aggregate stability against water forces under different climates on agriculture land and scrubland in southern Bolivia. Soil and Tillage Research, 57(3), 159-166. doi:10.1016/s0167-1987(00)00155-0Cerdà, A. (2001). Effects of rock fragment cover on soil infiltration, interrill runoff and erosion. European Journal of Soil Science, 52(1), 59-68. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.2001.00354.xCerdà, A., & Doerr, S. H. (2007). Soil wettability, runoff and erodibility of major dry-Mediterranean land use types on calcareous soils. Hydrological Processes, 21(17), 2325-2336. doi:10.1002/hyp.6755Cerdà, A., Ibáñez, S., & Calvo, A. (1997). Design and operation of a small and portable rainfall simulator for rugged terrain. Soil Technology, 11(2), 163-170. doi:10.1016/s0933-3630(96)00135-3Di Prima, S. (2015). Automated single ring infiltrometer with a low-cost microcontroller circuit. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 118, 390-395. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2015.09.022Di Prima, S., Lassabatere, L., Bagarello, V., Iovino, M., & Angulo-Jaramillo, R. (2016). Testing a new automated single ring infiltrometer for Beerkan infiltration experiments. Geoderma, 262, 20-34. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.08.006Diodato, N., Verstraeten, G., & Bellocchi, G. (2012). DECADAL MODELLING OF RAINFALL EROSIVITY IN BELGIUM. Land Degradation & Development, 25(6), 511-519. doi:10.1002/ldr.2168Gee GW Bauder JW 1986 Particle-size analysis SSSA Book Series 383 411Haverkamp, R., Ross, P. J., Smettem, K. R. J., & Parlange, J. Y. (1994). Three-dimensional analysis of infiltration from the disc infiltrometer: 2. Physically based infiltration equation. Water Resources Research, 30(11), 2931-2935. doi:10.1029/94wr01788Iovino, M., Castellini, M., Bagarello, V., & Giordano, G. (2013). Using Static and Dynamic Indicators to Evaluate Soil Physical Quality in a Sicilian Area. Land Degradation & Development, 27(2), 200-210. doi:10.1002/ldr.2263Iserloh, T., Ries, J. B., Arnáez, J., Boix-Fayos, C., Butzen, V., Cerdà, A., … Wirtz, S. (2013). European small portable rainfall simulators: A comparison of rainfall characteristics. CATENA, 110, 100-112. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2013.05.013Iserloh, T., Ries, J. B., Cerdà, A., Echeverría, M. T., Fister, W., Geißler, C., … Seeger, M. (2013). Comparative measurements with seven rainfall simulators on uniform bare fallow land. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementary Issues, 57(1), 11-26. doi:10.1127/0372-8854/2012/s-00085Keesstra, S., Pereira, P., Novara, A., Brevik, E. C., Azorin-Molina, C., Parras-Alcántara, L., … Cerdà, A. (2016). Effects of soil management techniques on soil water erosion in apricot orchards. Science of The Total Environment, 551-552, 357-366. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.182B. A. King, & D. L. Bjorneberg. (2012). Transient Soil Surface Sealing and Infiltration Model for Bare Soil under Droplet Impact. Transactions of the ASABE, 55(3), 937-945. doi:10.13031/2013.41525Lado, M., Paz, A., & Ben-Hur, M. (2004). Organic Matter and Aggregate-Size Interactions in Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 68(1), 234-242. doi:10.2136/sssaj2004.2340Lassabatere, L., Angulo-Jaramillo, R., Goutaland, D., Letellier, L., Gaudet, J. P., Winiarski, T., & Delolme, C. (2010). Effect of the settlement of sediments on water infiltration in two urban infiltration basins. Geoderma, 156(3-4), 316-325. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.02.031Lassabatère, L., Angulo-Jaramillo, R., Soria Ugalde, J. M., Cuenca, R., Braud, I., & Haverkamp, R. (2006). Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer Parameters through Infiltration Experiments-BEST. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 70(2), 521-532. doi:10.2136/sssaj2005.0026Lassabatere, L., Angulo-Jaramillo, R., Soria-Ugalde, J. M., Šimůnek, J., & Haverkamp, R. (2009). Numerical evaluation of a set of analytical infiltration equations. Water Resources Research, 45(12). doi:10.1029/2009wr007941Lassabatere, L., Yilmaz, D., Peyrard, X., Peyneau, P. E., Lenoir, T., Šimůnek, J., & Angulo-Jaramillo, R. (2014). New Analytical Model for Cumulative Infiltration into Dual-Permeability Soils. Vadose Zone Journal, 13(12), vzj2013.10.0181. doi:10.2136/vzj2013.10.0181Lassu, T., Seeger, M., Peters, P., & Keesstra, S. D. (2015). The Wageningen Rainfall Simulator: Set-up and Calibration of an Indoor Nozzle-Type Rainfall Simulator for Soil Erosion Studies. Land Degradation & Development, 26(6), 604-612. doi:10.1002/ldr.2360BISSONNAIS, Y. (1996). Aggregate stability and assessment of soil crustability and erodibility: I. Theory and methodology. European Journal of Soil Science, 47(4), 425-437. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1996.tb01843.xLi, X.-Y., González, A., & Solé-Benet, A. (2005). Laboratory methods for the estimation of infiltration rate of soil crusts in the Tabernas Desert badlands. CATENA, 60(3), 255-266. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2004.12.004Lilliefors, H. W. (1967). On the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for Normality with Mean and Variance Unknown. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 62(318), 399-402. doi:10.1080/01621459.1967.10482916Liu, H., Lei, T. W., Zhao, J., Yuan, C. P., Fan, Y. T., & Qu, L. Q. (2011). Effects of rainfall intensity and antecedent soil water content on soil infiltrability under rainfall conditions using the run off-on-out method. Journal of Hydrology, 396(1-2), 24-32. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.10.028Mualem, Y., Assouline, S., & Rohdenburg, H. (1990). Rainfall induced soil seal (A) A critical review of observations and models. CATENA, 17(2), 185-203. doi:10.1016/0341-8162(90)90008-2Mubarak, I., Angulo-Jaramillo, R., Mailhol, J. C., Ruelle, P., Khaledian, M., & Vauclin, M. (2010). Spatial analysis of soil surface hydraulic properties: Is infiltration method dependent? Agricultural Water Management, 97(10), 1517-1526. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.05.005Nunes, A. N., Lourenço, L., Vieira, A., & Bento-Gonçalves, A. (2014). Precipitation and Erosivity in Southern Portugal: Seasonal Variability and Trends (1950-2008). Land Degradation & Development, 27(2), 211-222. doi:10.1002/ldr.2265Prosdocimi, M., Jordán, A., Tarolli, P., Keesstra, S., Novara, A., & Cerdà, A. (2016). The immediate effectiveness of barley straw mulch in reducing soil erodibility and surface runoff generation in Mediterranean vineyards. Science of The Total Environment, 547, 323-330. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.076Reynolds, W. D., Bowman, B. T., Brunke, R. R., Drury, C. F., & Tan, C. S. (2000). Comparison of Tension Infiltrometer, Pressure Infiltrometer, and Soil Core Estimates of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 64(2), 478-484. doi:10.2136/sssaj2000.642478xRockström, J., Jansson, P.-E., & Barron, J. (1998). Seasonal rainfall partitioning under runon and runoff conditions on sandy soil in Niger. On-farm measurements and water balance modelling. 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Effect of crusting on the physical and hydraulic properties of a soil cropped with Castor beans (Ricinus communis L.) in the northeastern region of Brazil. Soil and Tillage Research, 141, 55-61. doi:10.1016/j.still.2014.04.004Tricker, A. S. (1979). The design of a portable rainfall simulator infiltrometer. Journal of Hydrology, 41(1-2), 143-147. doi:10.1016/0022-1694(79)90111-2Turner, R. K., van den Bergh, J. C. J. M., Söderqvist, T., Barendregt, A., van der Straaten, J., Maltby, E., & van Ierland, E. C. (2000). Ecological-economic analysis of wetlands: scientific integration for management and policy. Ecological Economics, 35(1), 7-23. doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(00)00164-6Van De Giesen, N. C., Stomph, T. J., & de Ridder, N. (2000). Scale effects of Hortonian overland flow and rainfall-runoff dynamics in a West African catena landscape. 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Does the Process of Passive Forest Restoration Affect the Hydrophysical Attributes of the Soil Superficial Horizon?

There has been an increase in the area of secondary tropical forests in recent years due to forest restoration in degraded areas. Recent analyses suggest that the success of passive forest restoration is highly uncertain and needs to be better understood. This study aimed to investigate the behavior of saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and some hydrophysical soil attributes between agricultural land uses, restored forests, and a degraded forest fragment. The areas evaluated are located in the municipality of Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil, under different types of land use: (i) two areas in the process of passive forest restoration: one of 18 and another of 42 years (NR18 and NR42); (ii) a degraded forest fragment (FFD); (iii) pasture (P), and (iv) sugarcane (SC). The hydraulic soil conductivity characterization was performed using the Beerkan method. Dry soil bulk density (BD), total porosity (Pt), macroporosity (Mac), microporosity (Mic), penetration resistance (PR), mean aggregate diameter (MWD), and soil organic carbon (OC) were also determined. The comparative analysis of the hydrophysical attributes of the soil superficial horizon in agricultural land uses (P and SC), restored forests (NR18 and NR42), and a degraded forest (DFF) confirms that the recovery of soil hydrological functioning in ongoing forest restoration processes can be a relatively slow process. In addition, the intensity of previous land use leaves footprints that can affect passive restoration areas for decades after agriculture abandonment, increasing the time for the recovery of Ks and soil hydrophysical attributes

The Impact of the Age of Vines on Soil Hydraulic Conductivity in Vineyards in Eastern Spain

Soil infiltration processes manage runoff generation, which in turn affects soil erosion. There is limited information on infiltration rates. In this study, the impact of vine age on soil bulk density (BD) and hydraulic conductivity (Ks) was assessed on a loam soil tilled by chisel plough. Soil sampling was conducted in the inter row area of six vineyards, which differed by the age from planting: 0 (Age 0; just planted), 1, 3, 6, 13, and 25 years (Age 1, Age 3, Age 6, Age 13, and Age 25, respectively). The One Ponding Depth (OPD) approach was applied to ring infiltration data to estimate soil Ks with an * parameter equal to 0.012 mm\u1000001. Soil bulk density for Age 0 was about 1.5 times greater than for Age 25, i.e., the long-term managed vineyards. Saturated hydraulic conductivity at Age 0 was 86% less than at Age 25. The planting works were considered a major factor for soil compaction and the reduction of hydraulic conductivity. Compared to the long-term managed vineyards, soil compaction was a very short-term effect given that BD was restored in one year due to ploughing. Reestablishment of Ks to the long-term value required more time