CHAT framework to study affordances in CALL environments

[EN] This paper proposes to explore the theory of affordances in the light of cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) to study affordances in complex Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) environments. The term ‘affordance’ designates an action possibility that is offered by an environment or an object to an actor in the environment either “for good or ill” (Gibson, 1979). It depends not only on the inherent characteristics of the environment but also on the users’ perception and action capabilities. CALL affordances are said to be a unique combination of social, educational, linguistic, and technological affordances (Blin, 2016a). However, there is limited research to date that looks at affordances from an ecological perspective linking the micro moment-to-moment interaction levels with the macro level within which they are embedded in educational contexts (Blin, 2016a). This paper explores the analytical tools of CHAT (Leontyev, 1978; Engeström, 1987) as particularly suitable to investigate affordances at the macro, meso and micro levels of technology-mediated sociocultural educational contexts in CALL.Irish Research Council, Dublin City UniversityDey-Plissonneau, A. (2021). CHAT framework to study affordances in CALL environments. The EuroCALL Review. 29(2):11-21. https://doi.org/10.4995/eurocall.2021.14991OJS1121292Albrechtsen, H., Andersen, H. H. K., Bødker, S., & Pejtersen, a. M. (2001). Affordances in Activity Theory and Cognitive Systems Engineering. Learning (Vol. 1287).Baerentsen, K. B., & Trettvik, J. (2002). An activity theory approach to affordance. In Proceed- ings of the second Nordic conference on human-computer interaction (pp. 51-60). New York: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/572020.572028Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin. Austin: University of Texas Press.Blin, F. (2005). CALL and the devlopment of learner autonomy: an activity theoretical study. Institute of Educational Technology, The Open Universiy.Blin, F. (2016). The theory of affordances. In C. Caws & M. Hamel (Eds.), Language-Learner Computer Interactions: Theory, methodology and CALL applications. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1075/lsse.2.03bliBlin, F., Nocchi, S., & Fowley, C. (2013). Mondes virtuels et apprentissage des langues : Vers un cadre théorique émergent. Recherches et Applications, (54), 94-107.Blunden, A. (2010). An Interdisciplinary Theory of Activity. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004184060.i-344Blunden, A. (2015). Leontyev's Activity Theory and Social Theory. Retrieved April 9, 2018, from https://www.ethicalpolitics.org/ablunden/pdfs/Leontyev and Social Theory.pdfBonderup Dohn, N. (2009). Affordances revisited: Articulating a Merleau-Pontian view. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 4(2), 151-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-009-9062-zCole, M. (1988). Cole-1988-Cross-cultural-research-socio-historical-tradition.pdf. Human Development, 31(3), 137-157. https://doi.org/10.1159/000275803Conole, G., & Dyke, M. (2004). What are the affordances of information and communication technologies? ALT-J, 12(2), 113-124. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v12i2.11246Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. W. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 10-32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.xDarhower, M. A. (2008). The role of linguistic affordances in telecollaborative chat. Calico Journal, 26(1), 48-69.De Haan, J., Reed, W. M., & Kuwada, K. (2010). The effect of interactivity with a music video game on second language vocabulary recall. Language Learning & Technology, 74(2), 74-94.Engeström, R. (1995). Voice as Communicative Action. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 2(3), 192-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10749039509524699Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by Expanding: An Activity-Theoretical Approach to Developmental Research. Helsinki: Finland: Orienta-Konsultit, Oy. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139814744Engeström, Y. (1999). Communication, Discourse and Activity. Communication Review, 3(1/2), 165-186. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.dcu.idm.oclc.org/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=54c035b1-f79f-40b4-977a-cddcf9022f98%40pdc-v-sessmgr05&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3D%3D#AN=4114913&db=cmsEngeström, Y. (2001). Expansive Learning at Work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133-156. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080123238Engeström, Y. (2005). Developmental work research: expanding activity theory in practice. Berlin: Lehmanns Media. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142735.ima03bs111Engeström, Y. (2008). From teams to knots: Activity theoretical studies of collaboration and learning at work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511619847Engeström, Y., Miettinen, R., & Punamäki, R.-L. (1999). Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511812774Engestrom, Y., & Sannino, A. (2010). Studies of expansive learning: Foundation, findings and future challenges. Educational Research Review, 5, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2009.12.002Gibson, E. J., & Pick, A. D. (2000). An Ecological Approach to Perceptual Learning and Development. Cary, USA: Oxford University Press.Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. New York: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group.Kaptelinin, V., & Nardi, B. (2012). Affordances in HCI: Toward a mediated action perspective. In Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 967-976). New York: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/2207676.2208541Kirschner, P., Strijbos, J., Kreijns, K., & Beers, P. J. (2004). Designing electronic collaborative learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(3), 47-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504675Kuutti, K. (1996). Activity Theory as a potential framework for Human-Computer Interaction research. In B. Nardi (Ed.), Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Humn-Computer Interaction (pp. 17-44). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Laurillard, D., Stratfold, M., Luckin, R., Plowman, L., & Taylor, L. (2000). Affordances for Learning in a Non-Linear Narrative Medium. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.5334/2000-2Lektorsky, V. (2004). Science, Society and Ethics. Poznan Studies in the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities, 81, 229-232.Leontyev, A. N. (1978). Activity and Consciousness. (Andy Blunden, Ed.). CA, USA: Marxists Internet Archive. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevC.18.1688Leontyev, A. N. (1981). Problems of the development of the mind. Moscow: Progress.Levy, M., & Caws, C. (2016). CALL design and research. Taking a micro and macro view. In C. Caws & M.-J. Hamel (Eds.), Language-Learner Computer Interactions: Theory, methodology and CALL applications (pp. 89-113). Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1075/lsse.2.05levLin, A. M. Y. (2007). What's the Use of 'Triadic Dialogue'?: Activity Theory, Conversation Analysis and Analysis of Pedagogical Practices. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 2(2), 77-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/15544800701343943Nocchi, S. (2017). The affordances of virtual worlds for language learning.Reimann, R. (2001). So you want to be an interaction designer… Retrieved May 1, 2021, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247561586_So_you_want_to_be_an_interaction_designerTurner, P. (2005). Affordance as context. Interacting with Computers, 17(6), 787-800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intcom.2005.04.003Van Lier, L. (2000). From input to affordance: Social-interactive learning from an ecological perspective. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 245-259). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Vyas, D., Chisalita, C. M., & Dix, A. (2008). Dynamics of affordances and implications for design (Report).Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and Language (A. Kozulin, Ed., Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the Mind: A Sociocultural Approach to Mediated Action. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press

Multimodal imaging Gd-nanoparticles functionalized with Pittsburgh compound B or a nanobody for amyloid plaques targeting

peer reviewe

Vectorisation de nanoparticules d'imagerie multimodale à base de gadolinium pour un ciblage actif des plaques amyloïdes et de cellules hépatocytes

The goal of this PhD is to develop multimodal imaging nanoparticles vectorized for the detection of amyloid deposit or specific cells receptors. These Nps, called AGuIX (Activation and Guidance of XRay Irradiation) are composed of a polysiloxane network surrounded by DOTAGA(Gd3+) chelates. One labeled with an organic dye or a radioisotope, these Nps could combine three imaging techniques such as MRI, known for its outstanding spatial resolution, and optical imaging and scintigraphy, known for their strong sensitivity. Thanks to their hydrodynamic diameter below 5 nm, they are efficiently eliminated from the body though renal clearance. Thus, these Nps are particularly indicated for earlier and more accurate diagnosis of a wide range of pathologies. To target amyloid deposits or asialoglycoproteins receptors we optimized the grafting several ligands (i.e. small molecules, peptides, antibody fragments, …). Then, we evaluated their affinity of their respective targets in vitro and/or in vivoCette thèse traite du développement de nanoparticules d'imagerie multimodale vectorisées pour détecter spécifiquement des dépôts amyloïdes ou certains récepteurs cellulaires. Ces nanoparticules, dénommées AGuIX (Activation et Guidage de l'Irradiation par rayonnement X), sont composées d'un squelette de polysiloxane fonctionnalisées par des chélates de DOTAGA(Gd3+). Une fois marquées par un fluorophore organique ou des radioisotopes, ces Nps permettent de combiner jusqu'à trois techniques d'imagerie : l'IRM, qui présente une excellente résolution spatiale, et la scintigraphie et l'imagerie optique qui présentent toutes deux une excellente sensibilité. De par leur diamètre hydrodynamique inférieur à 5 nm, ces Nps sont efficacement éliminées par voie rénale et les différents tests in vivo réalisés n'ont pas révélé de toxicité de ces objets. Ainsi, les Nps AGuIX sont particulièrement indiquées dans le cadre d'un diagnostic précis et précoce de différentes pathologies. L'objectif de la thèse consiste donc à greffer à la surface de ces Nps des vecteurs ciblants (i) les fibres amyloïdes ; (ii) les récepteurs asialoglycoprotéines des cellules hépatocytes du foie. Selon la nature du vecteur à greffer (i.e. molécule organique, peptide, fragment d'anticorps, …) différentes stratégies ont été mises en place. Nous avons donc dans un premier temps optimisé les synthèses des Nps vectorisées, pour ensuite évaluer leur affinité pour leurs cibles respectives in vitro et/ou in viv

Quand un gène d'avirulence en cache un autre : analyse de l'interaction entre AvrLm3 et AvrLm4-7 chez Leptosphaeria maculans

Leptosphaeria maculans is a Dothideomycete responsible for stem canker on oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Genetic control, encompassing mostly the use of major resistance genes, is the most effective method to control this pathogen. When the first cultivars harboring Rlm7 have been deployed in the early 2000's, all of the European isolates were avirulent towards this resistance gene and AvrLm3 was considered to be absent from the populations. In 2012, Daverdin et al. showed that L. maculans has the ability to rapidly overcome the Rlm7 resistance whenever a strong selection pressure is applied. The phenotyping of isolates sampled by Daverdin et al. also showed that more than 98 % of the isolates virulent towards Rlm7 had become avirulent towards Rlm3. This result led to the hypothesis that the presence of AvrLm4-7 can suppress AvrLm3 recognition by Rlm3 and this was validated by the complementation of an isolate avirulent towards Rlm3 with a functional allele of AvrLm4-7. AvrLm3 is genetically linked to AvrLm4-7, at a distance of 20 cM. However, no candidate gene was identified before the beginning of my PhD. The objective of my PhD project was to identify AvrLm3, in order to better understand the antagonistic relationship between AvrLm3 and AvrLm4-7 phenotypes. The combination of genetic and genomic approaches (genetic mapping, RNA-seq, de novo sequencing of an isolate avirulent towards Rlm3 and BAC clone sequencing) allowed me to identify AvrLm3, whose sequence was absent from the reference genome assembly. AvrLm3 has common characteristics with others genes encoding fungal effector: it codes for a small, cysteine-rich protein, is highly expressed at early infection stages and shows no homology with others fungal genes. Although the mechanism allowing the suppression of AvrLm3 recognition due to the presence of AvrLm4-7 has not been elucidated, several hypotheses were invalidated: the presence of AvrLm4-7 has no impact on AvrLm3 expression and the two avirulence proteins do not interact physically.The sampling of field isolates in 2012 and 2013 showed the currently ongoing breakdown of Rlm7, with ca. 10% of virulent isolates, and the resurgence of the AvrLm3 phenotype in these populations, only 0.5 % of isolates being virulent towards both Rlm3 and Rlm7. A large collection of isolates from worldwide origin was genotyped for AvrLm3. It revealed that all isolates possess AvrLm3, with a high level of allelic diversity. The resurgence of the avirulent phenotype towards Rlm3 following the breakdown the Rlm7, along with the important role of AvrLm3 and AvrLm4-7 in fungal fitness, suggest that the antagonistic relationship between these two avirulence phenotypes could be an opportunity to propose original strategies to increase the durability of Rlm3 and Rlm7, by alternating both resistance genes at the landscape level or using pyramiding strategies. However, we identified novel isoforms of AvrLm4-7 allowing the fungus to escape Rlm7 recognition, while maintaining the suppression of Rlm3 recognition effective. This work allowed to better characterize an unusual gene-for-gene relationship. Indeed, only one other example of antagonism between avirulence phenotypes has been identified to date, in the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum (Houterman et al., 2008). The diversity of mechanisms allowing L. maculans to overcome the Rlm3 resistance illustrates perfectly the complexity of the arms race between plants and pathogens.Leptosphaeria maculans est l'agent de la nécrose du collet des crucifères, principale maladie fongique du colza (Brassica napus). Lorsque des variétés de colza possédant la résistance Rlm7 ont été commercialisées au début des années 2000, la totalité des souches européennes étaient avirulentes vis-à-vis de ce gène de résistance. A l'inverse, AvrLm3 était considéré comme absent de ces populations. Un précédent projet de thèse réalisé dans l'équipe a montré la rapide capacité d'adaptation de L. maculans à la pression de sélection exercée par Rlm7 (Daverdin et al. 2012) et le phénotypage des populations isolées lors de cette étude avait montré que 98% des souches virulentes vis-à-vis de Rlm7 étaient avirulentes vis-à-vis de Rlm3. L'hypothèse d'un masquage du phénotype avirulent dû à la présence d'AvrLm4-7 a alors été validée par la complémentation d'une souche avirulente vis-à-vis de Rlm3 par AvrLm4-7. Sur ces bases, l'objectif de mon projet de thèse était d'identifier AvrLm3 afin d'analyser l'antagonisme entre les phénotypes AvrLm3 et AvrLm4-7, ainsi que les mécanismes menant au contournement de Rlm3 et Rlm7.Le gène AvrLm3 avait été identifié comme génétiquement lié à AvrLm4-7. Toutefois il n'avait pas été possible d'identifier un gène candidat. Par la combinaison d'approches de génétique et de génomique (clonage positionnel, RNA-seq, séquençage de novo d'une souche avirulente et de clones BAC), j'ai pu identifier AvrLm3, dont la séquence était absente du génome de référence de L. maculans. AvrLm3 est très fortement exprimé lors des phases précoces de l'infection et code pour une petite protéine sécrétée et ne présentant pas d'homologies avec d'autres protéines fongiques. Ce gène a donc les caractéristiques classiques des gènes codant pour des effecteurs, mais présente la particularité d'être le premier gène d'avirulence de L. maculans localisé en région télomérique. Bien que le mécanisme par lequel la présence du gène AvrLm4-7 supprime la reconnaissance d'AvrLm3 dans l'interaction entre B. napus et L. maculans n'ait pas été élucidé au terme de ma thèse, plusieurs hypothèses ont pu être invalidées, notamment l'absence de régulation de l'expression d'AvrLm3 par AvrLm4-7. De plus, une approche double hybride a mis en évidence une absence d'interaction directe entre les deux protéines d'avirulence. L'isolement de souches de L. maculans issues de parcelles expérimentales en 2012 et 2013 a mis en évidence le contournement actuel de la résistance Rlm7, avec environ 10 % de souches virulentes. Le phénotypage de ces collections a confirmé la présence majoritaire d'un allèle avirulent d'AvrLm3 chez celles-ci, moins de 0,5 % des souches isolées étant virulentes à la fois vis-à-vis de Rlm3 et de Rlm7. L'analyse de 592 souches d'origine mondiale a montré qu'AvrLm3 est toujours présent chez L. maculans, sous diverses formes alléliques, suggérant un rôle majeur d'AvrLm3 dans la fitness fongique. La résurgence du phénotype avirulent vis-à-vis de Rlm3 suite au contournement de Rlm7 fait envisager l'opportunité d'exploiter l'interaction entre les deux gènes d'avirulence pour une gestion plus durable des gènes de résistance de B. napus, par l'alternance de cultivars possédant Rlm3 et Rlm7 ou le pyramidage de ces deux gènes dans des variétés de colza. De plus, le rôle démontré d'AvrLm3 et d'AvrLm4-7 dans l'agressivité lors de l'infection suppose un fort coût de fitness lié à la virulence. Toutefois, des mécanismes originaux de compensation permettant au champignon d'échapper à la reconnaissance par Rlm3 et Rlm7 tout en conservant a priori fonctionnelle la fonction effectrice d'AvrLm3 et AvrLm4-7 ont été identifiés. Les résultats obtenus lors de ce travail de thèse ont permis la meilleure caractérisation d'une interaction gène-pour-gène inhabituelle. La diversité des mécanismes moléculaires permettant à L. maculans de contourner la résistance Rlm3 illustre la complexité de la course aux armements entre les plantes et les agents pathogènes

Entre actualisation et contextualisation, deux lectures de Madame Bovary en seconde générale et professionnelle : l’invention d’une anachronie heuristique ?

L’enseignement de la lecture littéraire au lycée est marqué, d’un point de vue institutionnel, par la mise en exergue d’un souci de contextualisation des œuvres étudiées, alors que les recherches en didactique de la littérature pointent la reconfiguration des textes par des sujets lecteurs ; en outre, les travaux d’Yves Citton ont mis l’accent sur l’intérêt d’un processus d’actualisation des textes littéraires. À travers l’analyse de deux séquences de seconde de lycée professionnel et général, notre article interroge la place et la fonction de l’actualisation ainsi que la coexistence de celle-ci avec une perspective contextualisante : ceci nous conduit à formuler l’hypothèse du développement d’une forme d’anachronie heuristique.Literature teaching in high schools tends to put the accent on a rather literary way of reading literature, which focuses on the importance of contextualising the works studied. However, didactic research in the field of literature highlights the fact that reading subjects give new features to the text. Indeed, Yves Citton’s proposals emphasise the interest of reading classic literature through the lens of current concerns. Through analysis of two teaching sequences in two classes 16 to 17-year-old pupils (one in a general and one in a technical Upper Secondary School), this article examines the place and the function of the process of reading classic literature from a modern perspective. We look at how this process co-exists with a contextualizing approach, and conclude that in fact a kind of anachronic heuristic may be occuring

Designed and emerging affordances in tutor-learner multimodal interactions via videoconferencing for second language learning and teaching: an activity theoretical approach

Videoconferencing for L2 learning affords the unique possibility of online synchronous interaction with L2 expert speakers using web-camera, microphone and text chat; pin marking students’ errors on the oral recordings; generating online feedback, etc. However, distance learning mediated by technology also presents inherent complexities due to multiple spaces, timescales, cultures and norms that are different from a classroom environment. This makes the study of affordances important to inform videoconference embedded L2 pedagogy. An affordance designates an action possibility, positive or negative, that is offered by an object or environment to an actor in the environment. Few studies have analysed the emergence and realisation of affordances in learning environments with substantial socio-cultural, pedagogical and technological components. Drawing on Cultural Historical Activity Theory, this thesis investigates the emergence and realisation of linguistic, pedagogical, technological and socio-cultural affordances in tutor-tutee multimodal interactions via videoconferencing. Master’s students (teacher-trainees) of French as a foreign language from a French University interacted online via videoconferencing with undergraduate Business students learning French at an Irish University over a period of 6 weeks. The tutor-tutee online interactions generated a multimodal corpus that provided the data for this activity-theoretical study. Activity systems at the macro, meso and micro levels were modelled, and the designed and emerging affordances were identified. Furthermore, new actions emerged to overcome manifestations of contradictions at the macro inter-institutional interaction level and at the micro level of moment-to-moment tutor-tutee interactions. The findings reveal that the design of pedagogical and technological tools, institutional norms and the division of labour within and between institutions triggered multi-level intra and inter-systemic contradictions. These were resolved by the creation of novel mediating tools and models as well as more learner-centred pedagogical interactions. Consequently, a taxonomy of technological, pedagogical and social affordances is suggested to help inform videoconference embedded L2 pedagogical design and teacher training

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus- IS76, a textbook case of viral emergence triggered by host shift

Begomoviruses belong to the family Geminiviridae and are known to be highly recombinogenic. The tomato yellow leaf curl disease (TYLCD) is one of the most devastating disease affecting tomato. Various begomovirus species induce TYLCD all over the world including Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) and the tomato yellow leaf curl Sardinia virus (TYLCSV). TYLCV and TYLCSV are present in Mediterranean region and TYLCV/TYLCSV recombinants are frequently detected. TYLCD-resistant tomato plants bearing the Ty-1 resistance gene were deployed in this region; these plants accumulate about 10 times less virus than susceptible ones and are symptomless. In Morocco, where TYLCV and TYLCSV are detected since the end of the 90s, Ty-1 resistant plants have progressively replaced susceptible plants from 2003. However, in 2010, Ty-1 resistant plants exhibiting TYLCD symptoms were observed. They were infected with an unusual TYLCV/TYLCSV recombinant variant, TYLCV-IS76 (IS76). IS76 was not detected in tomato plants sampled before the deployment of Ty-1 resistant genotypes. After the deployment, IS76 was the only virus detected in tomato fields, while the parental viruses had nearly disappeared. Using infectious viral clones, the viral accumulation of IS76 was compared to that of parental viruses. IS76 accumulated at higher levels than parental viruses in Ty-1 resistant plants but at similar levels in susceptible plants. This result together with the coincidence between IS76 emergence and the deployment of Ty-1 resistant genotypes show that Ty-1 resistant plants triggered the emergence of the TYLCV-IS76 variant. Now, the challenge is to understand the molecular mechanisms that provide the selective advantage of IS76, and possibly derive from this knowledge the selection of new TYLCD-resistant genotypes

The L2L System for Second Language Learning Using Visualised Zoom Calls Among Students

An important part of second language learning is conversation which is best practised with speakers whose native language is the language being learned. We facilitate this by pairing students from different countries learning each others' native language. Mixed groups of students have Zoom calls, half in one language and half in the other, in order to practice and improve their conversation skills. We use Zoom video recordings with audio transcripts enabled which generates recognised speech from which we extract timestamped utterances and calculate and visualise conversation metrics on a dashboard. A timeline highlights each utterance, colour coded per student, with links to the video in a playback window. L2L was deployed for a semester and recorded almost 250 hours of zoom meetings. The conversation metrics visualised on the dashboard are a beneficial asset for both students and lecturers.Comment: 16th European Conference on Technology-Enhanced Learning (EC-TEL), Bozen-Bolzano, Italy (online), September 202

Points de vue croisés sur les approches analytiques des textes littéraires

L’article vise à restituer les points de vues croisées d’universitaires et d’inspecteurs pédagogiques régionaux quant aux approches analytiques des textes en saisissant particulièrement les tensions entre la formation universitaire de lettres et l’exercice du métier d’enseignant de français.Interrogée sur les récentes évolutions des pratiques, S. David souligne l’évolution des pratiques de lecture du texte notamment au collège, où les professeurs semblent accorder davantage de place au sujet lecteur. Elle insiste d’autre part sur les enjeux de l’explication de texte dans les récents programmes du lycée, qui ne doit pas rester un exercice purement formel. Évoquant la formation de lettres en licence, P. Chiron et P. Chométy soulignent l’intérêt de cours de lecture à haute voix qui contribuent justement, selon eux, à permettre une appropriation plus personnelle des textes et ainsi à former de futurs enseignants qui seront susceptibles de transmettre le plaisir du texte. F. Pelligrini, de son côté, insiste sur les difficultés des étudiants à se « colleter » à la chair du texte littéraire ce qui explique, selon elle, les fréquentes tentatives d’évitement d'analyses détaillées qu’elle observe dans les classes.The article aims to restore the crossed points of view of academics and regional pedagogical inspectors as regards the analytical approaches of texts by grasping in particular the tensions between the university education of literature and the exercise of the profession of French teacher.When asked about recent developments in the practices she observes in the classroom, S. David emphasises the evolution of text reading practices, particularly in the middle school, where teachers seem to give more space to the reader as a subject. She also insists on the importance of text explanation in recent high school curricula, which should not remain a purely formal exercise. Referring to the education of Humanities students, P. Chiron and P. Chométy emphasise the value of aloud reading lessons which, in their opinion, contribute precisely to a more personal appropriation of texts and thus to training future teachers who will be likely to transmit the pleasure of the text. F. Pelligrini, for her part, insists on the students’ difficulties in “sticking” to the flesh of the literary text, which explains, according to her, the frequent attempts to avoid detailed analysis that she observes in the classrooms

Molecular determinants of the selective advantage of an invasive recombinant begomovirus in tomato plants carrying a Ty-1 resistance gene

TYLCV-IS76 is a recombinant begomovirus (family Geminiviridae) between Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) and Tomato yellow leaf curl Sardinia virus. It was detected in 2010 in Southern Morocco, and subsequent large field surveys showed that it had replaced its parental viruses. The fact that TYLCV-IS76 was positively selected in tomato plants carrying the begomovirus resistance gene Ty-1, and the co-occurrence of its emergence with the replacement of susceptible tomato cultivars with Ty-1 resistant cultivars, both support a Ty-1 resistancedriven emergence of TYLCV-IS76. The virus-plant interactions that determine positive selection of begomovirus recombinants are thought to involve gene silencing, because the Ty-1 gene encodes a gamma-clade RNAdependent RNA polymerase (RDRγ) implicated in biogenesis of viral small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and methylation of viral DNA. To further investigate the mechanisms of RDRγ-mediated antiviral defence and defence evasion by TYLCV-IS76, we performed a comparative small RNA-ome and transcriptome profiling of Ty- 1 resistant and control susceptible plants infected with TYLCV or TYLCV-IS76. We found that RDRγ strongly enhances production of 22 and 24 nt viral siRNAs from both TYLCV and IS76 recombinant. The TYLCV-IS76 recombination event enhances transcription of viral silencing suppressor and coat protein genes and triggers more potent antiviral silencing responses. Compared to TYLCV, TYLCV-IS76 better evades transcriptional silencing of viral genes promoted by RDRγ, which may explain why the recombinant virus outcompetes its parents in Ty-1 plants