IL-17 and its possible role in the pathogenesis of equine osteoarthritis

Osteoartrit (OA) är en vanlig sjukdom både hos människor och hos hästar. Studier tyder på att olika cytokiner, där IL-1β och TNFα tros vara de viktigaste, bidrar till att driva de katabola processer i ledbrosket som man ser vid OA. Syftet med det här arbetet var att undersöka om IL-17 skulle kunna vara ytterligare ett sådan betydelsefull cytokin. IL-17 kan inducera produktion av både NO och PGE2 i ledbrosk, öka produktionen av andra proinflammatoriska cytokiner som IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 och TNFα, samt uppvisar potent synergi med IL-1β och TNFα. Detta cytokin har också visat sig kunna öka nedbrytningen av- och minska syntesen av extracellulärmatrix i brosket samt öka produktionen av proangiogena faktorer i synovialmembranet. I det fåtal studier som gjorts på människa har man funnit signifikant höjda nivåer av IL-17 i ledvätska hos personer med OA jämfört med de hos friska. I den enda studie på häst som hittats, kunde emellertid inte detta cytokin påvisas i led. IL-17 har förutsättningarna för att kunna vara ett viktig cytokin vid OA men det finns också saker som talar emot. Det skulle också kunna fungera som en bidragande faktor av mindre betydelse. Mer forskning behövs på området innan man kan dra några säkra slutsatser om IL-17:s betydelse för utvecklingen av OA

Compensatory movements in clinically lame horses

Detta examensarbete är en pilotstudie vars syfte var att med hjälp av det objektiva mätsystemet Lameness Locator studera om kompensatoriska hältmekanismer förekommer hos kliniskt halta hästar. Tidigare studier har visat att en inducerad hälta på ett av hästens ben kan resultera i asymmetriska rörelsemönster, så kallad kompensatorisk hälta, även på andra ben. Dessa kompensatoriska hältor är ej smärtutlösta utan försvinner när man reverserar den ursprungliga hältan. I litteraturen beskrivs att en hälta på ett bakben kan ge upphov till en kompensatorisk ipsilateral frambenshälta. Vid hälta på ett framben kan både en ipsilateral och en kontralateral bakbenshälta uppkomma. Totalt ingick 35 hästar i studien varav samtliga var under hältutredning på Universitetssjukhuset vid SLU. Mätvärdena för 11 av hästarna utvärderades och resultatet är att 6 av hästarna uppvisade kompensatoriska hältmekanismer liknande dem som observerats i tidigare studier avseende inducerad hälta. 2 hästar uppvisar något som liknar kompensatoriska hältor men som ej stämmer överens med de mönster för kompensatoriska hältor som man tidigare sett. De tre återstående hästarna uppvisar ingen kompensatorisk hälta. Utvärderingen av en stor andel av hästarnas mätvärden försvårades av att de till synes var initialhalta på mer än ett ben. Resultatet av den här studien visar att det finns kompensatoriska hältmekanismer hos kliniskt halta hästar. Det krävs dock ett betydligt större underlag för att kunna konstatera i vilken utsträckning det förhåller sig så. Mer data krävs också för att kunna dra några slutsatser angående egenskaperna hos dessa kompensatoriska hältmekanismer.This master’s thesis is a pilot study, the aim of which was to study whether compensatory movements resembling lameness are present in clinically lame horses. During the study the objective Lameness Locator system was used. Previous studies have shown that induced lameness in one leg of a horse can cause compensatory movements, which can mimic true lameness, in another limb. These compensatory movements are not pain related and disappear when the induced lameness is reversed. Hindlimb lameness has been described to cause compensatory movements that mimic lameness in the ipsilateral forelimb while forelimb lameness causes corresponding movements in the ipsilateral and/or contralateral hindlimb. A total of 35 horses, presented for lameness evaluation at the University Animal Hospital at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, were included in the present study. The data of 11 out of the 35 horses was selected for further evaluation. This evaluation showed that 6 out of the 8 horses exhibited compensatory movements that resembled those observed in the previous studies. In two of the horses the localization of the compensatory movements was not consistent with that of these previous studies. The three remaining horses showed no compensatory movements. A large proportion of the horses seemed, initially, to be lame on more than one leg, which made the evaluation of the corresponding data much more complicated. The results of this study show that compensatory movements resembling lameness are present in clinically lame horses. However, in order to determine to what extent, a much larger study population is required. A larger study population could also make it possible to draw conclusions about the properties of the compensatory movements

Functional product business models : a review of the literature and identification of operational tactical practices

Offering functional products (FP) are beginning to emerge as a growing trend within industrial firms driven by the desire to achieve economic performance and sustainable resource management goals. Nevertheless, our knowledge about how companies can adopt and implement FP has remained limited. In this study, we conduct a systematic literature review related to FP business models and tactical practices to advance the understanding regarding FP implementation. Based on the in-depth analysis of 48 articles, we develop a framework that proposes a link between FP business models and tactics. We further link FP business models to five operational level tactics, which can ensure the degree of their implementation and value generation. The identified tactical sets are contract, marketing, network, product design, and sustainability aspects.©2014 Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/fi=vertaisarvioitu|en=peerReviewed

Effect of Speed and Surface Type on Individual Rein and Combined Left-Right Circle Movement Asymmetry in Horses on the Lunge

Differences in movement asymmetry between surfaces and with increasing speed increase the complexity of incorporating gait analysis measurements from lunging into clinical decision making. This observational study sets out to quantify by means of quantitative gait analysis the influence of surface and speed on individual-rein movement asymmetry measurements and their averages across reins (average-rein measurements). Head, withers, and pelvic movement asymmetry was quantified in 27 horses, identified previously as presenting with considerable movement asymmetries on the straight, during trot in hand and on the lunge on two surfaces at two speeds. Mixed linear models (p < 0.05) with horse as the random factor and surface and speed category (and direction) as fixed factors analyzed the effects on 11 individual-rein and average-rein asymmetry measures. Limits of agreement quantified differences between individual-rein and average-rein measurements. A higher number of individual-rein asymmetry variables-particularly when the limb that contributed to movement asymmetry on the straight was on the inside of the circle-were affected by speed (nine variables, all p <= 0.047) and surface (three variables, all p <= 0.037) compared with average-rein asymmetry variables (two for speed, all p <= 0.003; two for surface, all p <= 0.046). Six variables were significantly different between straight-line and average-rein assessments (all p <= 0.031), and asymmetry values were smaller for average-rein assessments. Limits of agreement bias varied between +0.4 and +4.0 mm with standard deviations between 3.2 and 12.9 mm. Fewer average-rein variables were affected by speed highlighting the benefit of comparing left and right rein measurements. Only one asymmetry variable showed a surface difference for individual-rein and average-rein data, emphasizing the benefit of assessing surface differences on each rein individually. Variability in straight-line vs. average-rein measurements across horses and exercise conditions highlight the potential for average-rein measurements during the diagnostic process; further studies after diagnostic analgesia are needed

Prevalence of vertical movement asymmetries at trot in Standardbred and Swedish Warmblood foals

Many horses, just before and during their athletic career, show vertical movement asymmetries, to the same degree as clinically lame horses. It is unknown whether these asymmetries are caused by pain or have alternative explanations, such as inherent biological variation. In the latter case, movement asymmetries would be expected to be present at a very young age. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of movement asymmetries in foals. Motion analysis, using an inertial measurement unit-based system (Equinosis), was performed on 54 foals (31 Swedish Warmbloods, 23 Standardbreds) during straight-line trot. The foals were between 4–13 weeks old and considered sound by their owners. Differences between the vertical minimum and maximum values recorded for the head (HDmin, HDmax) and pelvis (PDmin, PDmax) between left and right stance were calculated for each stride and an average was computed for each trial. Thresholds for asymmetry were defined as absolute trial mean >6 mm for HDmin and HDmax, and >3 mm for PDmin and PDmax. These thresholds were exceeded for one or several parameters by 83% of Standardbred foals and 45% of Swedish Warmblood foals, demonstrating surprisingly high prevalence of asymmetries in young foals, although the risk of repetitive strain injuries and cumulative risk of trauma injuries was expected to be low in this age group. Standardbred foals showed similar prevalence of asymmetries to that reported previously for yearling Standardbred trotters, so relatively higher prevalence of movement asymmetries may be expected among trotters as a breed. In general, vertical head and pelvic movement asymmetries can be anticipated among foals considered sound by their owners. A better understanding of the aetiology of asymmetries is needed for correct interpretation of objective symmetry measurements in different populations of horses

Objectively measured movement asymmetry in yearling Standardbred trotters

Background Lameness evaluation of Standardbred trotters can be challenging due to discrepancies in observed movement asymmetry between in-hand and track exercise, and between different trotting speeds. There are few studies on objective measurement of movement in Standardbreds, and little knowledge regarding biological variation and clinical significance of measured movement asymmetry in this breed. Objectives To quantify the prevalence and magnitude of objectively measured movement asymmetry in young Standardbred trotters, and identify associations with trainer, sex, height, track type and in-hand measurement prior to or after track trials. Study design Cross-sectional, observational study. Methods A total of 114 Standardbred yearlings were evaluated with a wireless inertial sensor system during trot in-hand and when driven on a track. After exclusions relating to lameness or technical difficulties, 103 horses were included in the study; 77 were evaluated in-hand and on the track, 24 only in-hand and 2 only on the track. Results Front and/or hindlimb parameters were above asymmetry thresholds previously established for other breeds during in-hand trials for 94 (93%) horses and during track trials for 74 (94%) horses. Most horses showed mild asymmetry. A minority of horses (20%) switched side of the asymmetry for one or more parameters between in-hand and track trials. Mixed model analyses revealed no significant effects of trial mode (in-hand or track trial, in-hand trial pre- or post-track trial, straight or oval track), trainer or horse height. Females had a significant but small reduction in asymmetry in one front limb parameter (HDmax) compared with males (1.7 mm, 95% CI 0.18-3.28,P = .03). Main limitations High data variability, reflected in large trial standard deviations, relating mainly to a lack of horse compliance. Conclusions A high proportion of Standardbred yearlings showed movement asymmetries. There was no group-level effect between in-hand and track trials, however, considerable individual variation was observed

Adaptation strategies of the Icelandic horse with induced forelimb lameness at walk, trot and tölt

Background and objective Lameness assessment in the gaited Icelandic horse is complex. We aimed to describe their kinematic and temporal adaptation strategies in response to forelimb lameness at walk, trot and tolt.Study designIn vivo experiment.Methods Ten clinically non-lame Icelandic horses were measured before and after reversible forelimb lameness induction. Upper body and limb kinematics were measured using 11 inertial measurement units mounted on the poll, withers, pelvis (tubera sacrale) and all four limbs and hoofs (Equimoves (R), 500 Hz). Horses were measured on a straight line at walk and trot in-hand and at walk, trot and tolt while ridden. Linear mixed models were used to compare baseline and lame conditions (random factor = 'horse'), and results are presented as the difference in estimated marginal means or percentage of change.Results Lameness induction significantly (p < 0.05) increased head vertical movement asymmetry at walk (HDmin/HDmaxHAND: 18.8/5.7 mm, HDmin/HDmaxRIDDEN: 9.8/0.3 mm) and trot (HDmin/HDmaxHAND: 18.1/7.8 mm, HDmin/HDmaxRIDDEN: 24.0/9.3 mm). At the tolt, however, HDmin did not change significantly (1.1 mm), but HDmax increased by 11.2 mm (p < 0.05). Furthermore, pelvis vertical movement asymmetry (PDmax) increased by 4.9 mm, sound side dissociation decreased (-8.3%), and sound diagonal dissociation increased (6.5%). Other temporal stride variables were also affected, such as increased stance duration of both forelimbs at walk, tolt and in-hand trot.Main limitations Only one degree of lameness (mild) was induced with an acute lameness model.Conclusions Classical forelimb lameness metrics, such as vertical head and withers movement asymmetry, were less valuable at tolt compared to walk and trot, except for HDmax. Therefore, it is advised to primarily use the walk and trot to detect and quantify forelimb lameness in the Icelandic horse

Withers vertical movement symmetry is useful for locating the primary lame limb in naturally occurring lameness

BackgroundDuring orthopaedic assessment of lame horses, a head nod is commonly present in both primary forelimb and hindlimb lame horses. Additional motion metrics that could assist clinicians in correctly differentiating between these two scenarios would be of great clinical value. ObjectivesThe primary objective of this study was to examine whether withers movement asymmetry can be used in a clinical setting to distinguish primary forelimb lameness from compensatory head movement asymmetry due to primary hindlimb lameness. Study designRetrospective, multicentre study. MethodsMovement asymmetry of head, withers and pelvis was measured using multi-camera optical motion capture, as part of routine lameness investigations at four European equine hospitals. Vertical movement asymmetry parameters from 317 horses trotting in a straight line were compared before and after successful diagnostic analgesia of a single limb. Descriptive statistics, t-tests and linear models were used to analyse the data. ResultsIn forelimb lame horses, 80%-81% showed head and withers asymmetry both indicating lameness in the same forelimb. In hindlimb lame horses, 69%-72% showed head asymmetry ipsilateral to the lame hindlimb and withers asymmetry diagonal to the lame hindlimb, thus, head and withers asymmetry indicated lameness in different forelimbs. A large (>15 mm) compensatory head nod was seen in 28%-31% of the hindlimb lame horses. In 89%-92% of these, head and withers asymmetry indicated lameness in different forelimbs. Withers asymmetry decreased linearly with reduced head or pelvic asymmetry for both forelimb and hindlimb lame horses. Main limitationsCompensatory strategies were evaluated on group level to identify common patterns, potentially ignoring uncommon individual strategies. ConclusionsWithers vertical movement asymmetry metrics can be useful in helping to locate the primary lame limb during quantitative lameness assessment. Head and withers movement asymmetry parameters generally indicate the same forelimb in forelimb lame horses, but different forelimbs in hindlimb lame horses

Quantification of the effect of instrumentation error in objective gait assessment in the horse on hindlimb symmetry parameters

BACKGROUND: Objective gait analysis is becoming more popular as a tool assisting veterinarians during the clinical lameness exam. At present, there is only limited information on the effect of misplacement of markers/motion-sensors. OBJECTIVES: To investigate and describe the effect of marker misplacement on commonly calculated pelvic symmetry parameters. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study. METHODS: Each horse was equipped with custom-made devices consisting of several reflective markers arranged in a predefined manner with a reference marker correctly positioned regarding the anatomical landmark and several misplaced markers along the sagittal and transverse planes. Linear regression analysis was used to estimate the effect of marker misplacement. RESULTS: For the tubera sacrale, each cm of left/right misplacement led to a difference in minimum position of the pelvis (PDmin) of ±1.67 mm (95% CI 1.54-1.8 mm) (P<0.001); maximum position of the pelvis (PDmax) was affected by ±0.2 mm (95% CI 0.071-0.33 mm) (P = 0.003). With respect to cranial/caudal misplacement, each cm of misplacement resulted in a PDmin difference of ±0.04 mm (95% CI -0.09 to 0.16 mm) (P = 0.56) and a PDmax difference of ±0.008 mm (95% CI -0.13 to 0.12 mm) (P = 0.9). For the tubera coxae, each cm of vertical misplacement led to a difference in the displacement amplitude between left and right tubera coxae (Hip-Hike_Diff) of ±1.56 mm (95% CI 1.35-1.77 mm) (P<0.001); for the cranial/caudal misplacement, this was ±0.82 mm (95% CI 0.66-0.97 mm) (P<0.001). MAIN LIMITATIONS: Only three horses were used in this experiment and the study design did not permit to determine the influence of marker misplacement on the evaluation of different degrees of lameness. CONCLUSIONS: Marker misplacement significantly affects calculated symmetry parameters of the pelvis. The observed errors are overall small but significant. In cases of mildly asymmetrical horses, this error might influence the decision-making process whereas in more severe asymmetries, the influence of the error effect may become less significant

Timing of Vertical Head, Withers and Pelvis Movements Relative to the Footfalls in Different Equine Gaits and Breeds

Simple Summary Movement symmetry of the head and pelvis are used to measure lameness in horses in trot. Although head, pelvis and limb movements have been described, less is known about the temporal relationships between them. This information is needed to understand how the movements change with lameness. This is particularly relevant in gaited horses, such as the Icelandic horse that perform gaits such as tolt and pace, which are challenging to evaluate. This study used inertial measurement units to investigate head, withers and pelvis motion relative to limb movements in Icelandic, Warmblood and Iberian horses. Limb movements, together with vertical movements and lowest/highest positions of the head, withers and pelvis were calculated, and the relative timing of the events was compared across breeds. Additionally, data for tolt and pace were collected and evaluated in ridden Icelandic horses. For all gaits except walk and pace, the lowest/highest positions of the head/withers/pelvis were closely temporally related to midstance and hoof-off, respectively. Pelvic and withers total range of motion differed between all breeds. The Icelandic horses showed shorter stride duration and smaller movements of the upper body than the other breeds at trot, which may explain why lameness evaluation in this breed is challenging. Knowledge of vertical motion patterns of the axial body segments is a prerequisite for the development of algorithms used in automated detection of lameness. To date, the focus has been on the trot. This study investigates the temporal synchronization between vertical motion of the axial body segments with limb kinematic events in walk and trot across three popular types of sport horses (19 Warmbloods, 23 Iberians, 26 Icelandics) that are known to have different stride kinematics, and it presents novel data describing vertical motion of the axial body segments in tolting and pacing Icelandic horses. Inertial measurement unit sensors recorded limb kinematics, vertical motion of the axial body at all symmetrical gaits that the horse could perform (walk, trot, tolt, pace). Limb kinematics, vertical range of motion and lowest/highest positions of the head, withers and pelvis were calculated. For all gaits except walk and pace, lowest/highest positions of the pelvis and withers were found to be closely related temporally to midstance and start of suspension of the hind/fore quarter, respectively. There were differences in pelvic/withers range of motion between all breeds where the Icelandic horses showed the smallest motion, which may explain why lameness evaluation in this breed is challenging