Comparing trainers’ reports of clicker use to the use of clickers in applied research studies: methodological differences may explain conflicting results

Clicker training refers to an animal training technique, derived from laboratory-based studies of animal learning and behaviour, in which a reward-predicting signal is delivered immediately following performance of a desired behaviour, and is subsequently followed by a reward. While clicker training is popular amongst dog training practitioners, scientific evaluation in applied settings has been largely unsuccessful in replicating the benefits of reward-predicting signals seen in laboratory animal studies. Here we present an analysis of dog trainers’ advice and perceptions, conducted to better understand clicker training as it occurs in the dog training industry. Twenty-five sources (13 interviews with dog trainers, 5 websites, and 7 books) were analysed using a deductive content analysis procedure. We found that, for many sources, “clicker training” referred not only to the technique, but also to a philosophy of training that emphasises positive reinforcement and the deliberate application of Learning Theory principles. Many sources reported that clicker training was fun, for both dog and handler, but that it could be frustrating for handlers to learn and sometimes cumbersome to juggle the extra equipment. In addition, while most sources recommended clicker training particularly when training new behaviours, many stated that it was no longer needed once the dog had learned the desired behaviour. When comparing industry recommendations to methods used in applied studies, different criteria were used for predictor signal conditioning. Inadequate conditioning of the predictor signal in empirical evaluations could partly explain the lack of learning benefits in applied studies. While future research is needed to verify the practitioner beliefs in a wider population, these results provide an in-depth description of what clicker training is, at least for the sources analysed, and a potential starting point for understanding methodological factors that could contribute to previous studies’ failure to demonstrate the benefits purported to exist by industry practitioners

Fact or fable: Increased wellbeing in voluntary simplicity

The value of a simple life has been espoused by writers and thinkers throughout time. In the modern era, it has been proposed as an antidote to modern stressors and as a path to wellbeing. The simple life — or voluntary simplicity as it has become known — is a lifestyle whose hallmark is reduced consumption. Personal growth and ecologically responsible behaviours are also integral components. If voluntary simplicity is a path to increased wellbeing, then society stands to benefit if the lifestyle becomes more widely adopted. This review asks the question, is there empirical evidence for an association between voluntary simplicity and improved wellbeing? Using a systematic approach, peer-reviewed literature regarding the wellbeing outcomes of simplifiers was located, resulting in four studies containing a total of 3,233 participants. A comparison of the four studies is given and the strengths and limitations of the present state of research in the area offered. It is concluded that the putative association between voluntary simplicity and improved wellbeing does exist, although important questions remain to be resolved by future research

Development of the cat-owner relationship scale (CORS)

Characteristics of the human-animal bond can be influenced by both owner-related and pet-related factors, which likely differ between species. Three studies adapted the Monash Dog-Owner Relationship Scale (MDORS) to permit assessment of human-cat interactions as perceived by the cat's owner. In Study 1293 female cat owners completed a modified version of the MDORS, where 'dog' was replaced with 'cat' for all items. Responses were compared with a matched sample of female dog owners. A partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed systematic differences between cat and dog owners in the Dog (Cat)-Owner Interaction subscale (MDORS subscale 1), but not for Perceived Emotional Closeness or Perceived Costs (Subscales 2 and 3). Study 2 involved analysis of free-text descriptions of cat-owner interactions provided by 61 female cat owners. Text mining identified key words which were used to create additional questions for a new Cat-Owner Interaction subscale. In Study 3, the resulting cat-owner relationship scale (CORS) was tested in a group of 570 cat owners. The main psychometric properties of the scale, including internal consistency and factor structure, were evaluated. We propose that this scale can be used to accurately assess owner perceptions of their relationship with their cat. A modified scale, combining items from the CORS and MDORS (a C/DORS), is also provided for when researchers would find it desirable to compare human-cat and human-dog interactions. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Inter-rater and test–retest reliability of the Monash Canine Personality Questionnaire-Revised (MCPQ-R)

In developing a valid test for measuring canine personality, it is important to test the reliability of the instrument. The Monash Canine Personality Questionnaire-Revised (MCPQ-R) is a 26-item, adjective-based, owner-administered, questionnaire that measures canine personality along five dimensions: Extraversion, Motivation, Training Focus, Amicability and Neuroticism. Its reliability was tested using inter-rater reliability measures and test–retest measures. Sixty-five couples rated their pet dog individually using the MCPQ-R, with one member of each couple completing the same questionnaire after a 6-month interval. Inter-rater reliability values were similar to or stronger than those found in similar research in dogs, with statistically significant (P \u3c 0.001) positive values for all five dimensions ranging from 0.75 (Neuroticism) to 0.86 (Extraversion). Test–retest results were also positive and statistically significant (P \u3c 0.001) for all dimensions ranging from 0.79 (Neuroticism) to 0.93 (Motivation). The results of this study suggest the MCPQ-R is reliable for assessing canine personality along the five identified dimensions

An experience sampling approach to investigating associations between pet presence and indicators of psychological wellbeing and mood in older Australians

In this study we examined associations between pet ownership and presence and indicators of psychological wellbeing in older Australians, using an innovative, experience sampling methodology and a community-living sample of 68 adults, including 41 pet owners, all aged over 65 years. In response to randomized prompts the participants provided information about their location, social companions, activities, and mood state six times daily for seven consecutive days. They also completed a number of surveys measuring various aspects of wellbeing. There were no significant differences in our outcome measures between pet owners and those who did not own at least one pet, and few of our pet owners reported engaging in pet-focused human– animal activities, such as walking their dog or playing with their cat. However, frequency of pet presence during activities of daily living was associated with, and statistically predictive of, several measures of wellbeing and mood. From our results we tentatively conclude that more frequent presence of a pet, particularly a dog, may be associated with greater psychological wellbeing in this cohort. More importantly, we confirm that the intensive experience sampling methodology provides a novel means of examining human–pet interactions, enabling a closer analysis of moment-by-moment pet presence than has been possible using alternative approache

Raising an Assistance Dog Puppy—Stakeholder Perspectives on What Helps and What Hinders

Assistance dog puppies live with their raisers for up to 16 months before entering advanced training and, hopefully, becoming qualified to help people with a disability. Almost half of the puppies fail to meet the behavioural standards required for assistance dogs, and some puppy raisers produce more behaviourally favourable puppies than others. It is unclear what factors influence puppy-raising practice quality. To understand this, we interviewed 17 participants, including experienced puppy raisers (n = 8), provider organisation staff (n = 4), and those who have served both as puppy raisers and staff (n = 5). Results of a thematic analysis suggest three groups of influencing factors, namely intrapersonal factors, social support, and puppy characteristics. Intrapersonal factors such as expectations, competency, perseverance and passion were reported to influence puppy raisers’ experiences, puppy-raising quality, and continuity of service. Contextual factors such as availability of social support (informational and emotional supports) and less-demanding puppies both led to positive puppy-raising experiences, while the former also contributed to puppy raisers’ perceptions of competency. Future research should quantitatively examine the interrelationships of these factors concerning puppies’ behavioural development. Meanwhile, organisations could consider these factors when developing their recruitment and puppy-raiser support programs

The Italian perception of the ideal companion dog

The prevailing feeling of Italians toward animals is positive and based on respect. Dogs are often perceived as family members and, providing social support, can improve human health. However, the mutually beneficial relationship between human and dog can break, as demonstrated by animals being abandoned to shelters. Rupture of the bond between owner and dog may be because of a lack of correspondence between the owner's conception of an ideal dog and reality. The aim of this study was to investigate demographic, morphological, and behavioral characteristics important to the Italian public in their ideal dog, using a questionnaire previously administered to the Australian public. Data were collected from 770 volunteers (74.3% females) aged 18-64 years. Physical characteristics were not important in defining the ideal dog, but the percentage of Italians reporting to prefer a neutered dog (35%) was much lower compared with the Australian public (64%). In particular, most Italian men preferred a male entire/intact dog (68%, P < 0.001). Italian women were more willing to spend time with their dog than Italian males. Most people indicated that the cost of maintaining a dog was unimportant, but most dog owners reportedly spent less than 21\u20ac per week (70%, P < 0.001). Consistent with the Australian data, the ideal dog for Italians should be safe with children, housetrained, healthy, friendly with humans and other animals, long lived, and obedient. Principal component analysis condensed ideal behavioral traits into 5 components, explaining 47.9% of the total variance: calm, sociable and healthy, well trained and adaptable, energetic, and easy to manage. Analysis of variance revealed that men preferred an energetic dog (P < 0.001) and participants living with children a sociable and healthy dog. Older adults (P < 0.001), dog owners (P < 0.001), and participants living alone (P < 0.05) perceived training to be important in the ideal dog. Dog owners also preferred a dog that is easy to manage (P < 0.05). In conclusion, gender, previous experiences, prejudices on neutering, and attitude toward the animals may affect expectations of respondents regarding the ideal dog. The gaps between ideal and real dogs highlighted in this study should be further investigated. These might be reduced by promoting an adequate education of potential dog owners about dogs' physiology and ethology and of the positive effects of training activities on dogs' behavior

Integrating facility dogs into legal contexts for survivors of sexual and family violence : Opportunities and challenges

Giving evidence in court can be stressful, especially for children. Since increased anxiety is associated with an increased likelihood of unreliable testimony among children, reducing anxiety in this context is important to improve the quality of evidence. Dogs have been used in legal settings, such as courtrooms, to provide comfort for vulnerable witnesses. Preliminary evidence supports their use, but further research is needed to better understand this phenomenon. The aim of this study was to characterize the employment of dogs in legal settings for survivors of sexual and/or family violence (SFV), as reported by adult professionals working in those contexts. This qualitative, exploratory study included interviews with 11 professionals (9 women, 2 men) working with dogs in legal contexts. Participants reported considerable benefits for survivors when dogs are integrated into these settings. Participants reported that survivors felt more comfortable opening up about their experiences, remaining calm enough to give reliable evidence. Several participants reported that this willingness to give evidence in court led perpetrators of SFV to plead guilty to the charges. In addition to reported benefits for survivors, participants also indicated that staff morale improved. Challenges identified included logistical (e.g., managing staff with dog allergies) and structural (e.g., lack of support from other members of the legal community) issues. Animal welfare was a priority for all participants, but some dogs experienced high workloads. Future research should empirically examine these benefits, to understand whether the use of dogs in legal settings should be encouraged

Assessment of electronic noses for support of a canine scent detection

The use of canines for the detection of trace substances has been invaluable to humans in the fields of medicine, security and logistics. Currently, it is a lengthy and expensive process to train these dogs. The integration of modern technologies is likely to result in improved efficiencies for this training process. This review of machine olfaction and the detection of trace substances in air suggests that while these technologies may be useful in the future, their current state does not provide any suitable opportunities for use in the field of canine scent detection

Application of an Adapted Behaviour Change Wheel to Assistance Dog Puppy Raising: A Proposed Raiser-Centred Support Program

Puppy raising (PR) programs recruit volunteer community members (raisers) to raise assistance dog (AD) candidates from puppyhood until the dogs are ready for advanced training. Once qualified, ADs assist human handlers with a disability to live more independently. Unfortunately, about 50% of all puppies do not meet the behavioural standards required for further training after completing a PR program. This increases costs and lengthens the time taken for a handler to obtain an AD. Research has identified several factors that influence raisers’ experiences. It has also shown that raisers’ socialisation and training practices affect perceived puppy behaviour. Drawing on the argument that puppy raiser practices are central to improving overall puppy raising program outcomes, this paper interprets recent findings within the framework provided by the behaviour change wheel—an established behaviour change framework—to suggest a coordinated approach to supporting puppy raisers. The recommendations will allow future research to employ more objective measures and more rigorous experimental designs as the field attempts to corroborate existing findings and develop evidence-based models of practice