Impact of Round-the-Clock, Rapid Oral Fluid HIV Testing of Women in Labor in Rural India

Nitika Pant Pai and colleagues report the results of offering a round-the-clock rapid HIV testing program in a rural labor ward setting in India

Is Antiretroviral Therapy Causing Long-Term Liver Damage? A Comparative Analysis of HIV-Mono-Infected and HIV/Hepatitis C Co-Infected Cohorts

The effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on progression of hepatic fibrosis in HIV-hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection are not well understood. Deaths from liver diseases have risen in the post-HAART era, yet some cross-sectional studies have suggested that HAART use is associated with improved fibrosis rates. In a retrospective cohort of 533 HIV mono-infected and 127 HIV/HCV co-infected patients, followed between January 1991 and July 2005 at a university-based HIV clinic, we investigated the relationship between cumulative HAART exposure and hepatic fibrosis, as measured by the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI). We used a novel methodological approach to estimate the dose-response relationship of the effect of HAART exposure on APRI. HAART was associated with increasing APRI over time in HIV/HCV co-infected patients suggesting that they may be experiencing cumulative hepatotoxicity from antiretrovirals. The estimated median change (95% confidence interval) in APRI per one year of HAART intake was of −0.46% (−1.61% to 0.71%) in HIV mono-infected compared to 2.54% (−1.77% to 7.03%) in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Similar results were found when the direct effect of HAART intake since the last visit was estimated on the change in APRI. HAART use associated is with increased APRI in patients with HIV/HCV co-infection. Therefore treatment for HCV infection may be required to slow the growing epidemic of end-stage liver disease in this population

Is Antiretroviral Therapy Causing Long-Term Liver Damage? A Comparative Analysis of HIV-Mono-Infected and HIV/Hepatitis C Co-Infected Cohorts

The effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on progression of hepatic fibrosis in HIV-hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection are not well understood. Deaths from liver diseases have risen in the post-HAART era, yet some cross-sectional studies have suggested that HAART use is associated with improved fibrosis rates. In a retrospective cohort of 533 HIV mono-infected and 127 HIV/HCV co-infected patients, followed between January 1991 and July 2005 at a university-based HIV clinic, we investigated the relationship between cumulative HAART exposure and hepatic fibrosis, as measured by the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI). We used a novel methodological approach to estimate the dose-response relationship of the effect of HAART exposure on APRI. HAART was associated with increasing APRI over time in HIV/HCV co-infected patients suggesting that they may be experiencing cumulative hepatotoxicity from antiretrovirals. The estimated median change (95% confidence interval) in APRI per one year of HAART intake was of −0.46% (−1.61% to 0.71%) in HIV mono-infected compared to 2.54% (−1.77% to 7.03%) in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Similar results were found when the direct effect of HAART intake since the last visit was estimated on the change in APRI. HAART use associated is with increased APRI in patients with HIV/HCV co-infection. Therefore treatment for HCV infection may be required to slow the growing epidemic of end-stage liver disease in this population

Feasibility of supervised self-testing using an oral fluid-based HIV rapid testing method:a cross-sectional, mixed method study among pregnant women in rural India

Introduction: HIV self-testing can increase coverage of essential HIV services. This study aimed to establish the acceptability, concordance and feasibility of supervised HIV self-testing among pregnant women in rural India. Methods: A cross-sectional, mixed methods study was conducted among 202 consenting pregnant women in a rural Indian hospital between August 2014 and January 2015. Participants were provided with instructions on how to self-test using OraQuick® HIV antibody test, and subsequently asked to self-test under supervision of a community health worker. Test results were confirmed at a government-run integrated counselling and testing centre. A questionnaire was used to obtain information on patient demographics and the ease, acceptability and difficulties of self-testing. In-depth interviews were conducted with a sub-sample of 35 participants to understand their experiences. Results: In total, 202 participants performed the non-invasive, oral fluid-based, rapid test under supervision for HIV screening. Acceptance rate was 100%. Motivators for self-testing included: ease of testing (43.4%), quick results (27.3%) and non-invasive procedure (23.2%). Sensitivity and specificity were 100% for 201 tests, and one test was invalid. Concordance of test result interpretation between community health workers and participants was 98.5% with a Cohen’s Kappa (k) value of k=0.566 with p<0.001 for inter-rater agreement. Although 92.6% participants reported that the instructions for the test were easy to understand, 18.7% required the assistance of a supervisor to self-test. Major themes that emerged from the qualitative interviews indicated the importance of the following factors in influencing acceptability of self-testing: clarity and accessibility of test instructions; time-efficiency and convenience of testing; non-invasiveness of the test; and fear of incorrect results. Overall, 96.5% of the participants recommended that the OraQuick® test kits should become publicly available. Conclusions: Self-testing for HIV status using an oral fluid-based rapid test under the supervision of a community health worker was acceptable and feasible among pregnant women in rural India. Participants were supportive of making self-testing publicly available. Policy guidelines and implementation research are required to advance HIV self-testing for larger populations at scale

A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies evaluating the performance of point-of-care tests for human papillomavirus screening.

BACKGROUND: High-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is a necessary cause of high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (grade 2 or higher, CIN2+). Simplified and rapid HPV DNA assays designed for use in resource-limited settings have recently become available. METHODS: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis by searching Medline, Embase, Global Health and CINAHL databases for studies from 1 January 2004 to 25 February 2017 that reported the performance of careHPV or OncoE6 for the detection of histological CIN2+ in cervical cancer screening. We used bivariate models to estimate pooled sensitivity and specificity for CIN2+ and CIN3+. RESULTS: A total of 29 657 women were included from seven studies evaluating the performance of careHPV for the detection of CIN2+ and four studies among 27 845 women for the detection of CIN3+. The pooled prevalence for CIN2+ and CIN3+ was 2.3% and 1.1%, respectively. careHPV had sensitivity and specificity of 88.1% (95% CI 81.4 to 92.7) and 83.7% (95% CI 74.9 to 89.8), respectively, for CIN2+ and 90.3% (95% CI 83.4 to 94.5) and 85.3% (95% CI 73.1 to 92.5), respectively, for CIN3+, using clinician-collected cervical specimen. The corresponding pooled estimates using self-collected vaginal swabs were 73.6% (95% CI 64.9 to 80.8) and 88.0% (95% CI 79.1 to 93.5) for CIN2+ and 75.2% (95% CI 66.8 to 82.0) and 90.6% (95% CI 83.4 to 94.9) for CIN3+. Two studies using OncoE6 reported sensitivity and specificity ranging from 31.3% to 42.4% and 99.1%-99.4% for CIN2+, and 53.5% and 98.9% for CIN3+ for one study. CONCLUSION: CareHPV has good sensitivity and specificity for the detection of CIN2+ and CIN3+, but sensitivity was lower using self-collected vaginal samples. The specificity is lower in high HPV prevalence populations such as women living with HIV. OncoE6 assay warrants further evaluation

Predictors for Using a HIV Self-Test Among Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers in North Carolina

Background: Approximately, two million migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSF) work in the United States annually. Several factors, such as lack of access to healthcare services and health behaviors, contribute to risk of HIV transmission. Relatively few studies have explored MSF knowledge of HIV transmission and testing options. Methods: A 12-question, self-administered survey of farmworkers (n = 178) from 19 migrant camps was conducted. The survey assessed knowledge of factors related to HIV transmission, testing, and intention to use a HIV home-test kit. Results: Participants with knowledge of treatment for HIV (p = 0.03) and that condom use protects against HIV (p = 0.04) were more willing to express intent to use a home test kit than those with less knowledge. Concern among farmworkers that HIV was a very or somewhat serious problem in their community was associated with expressing intent to use a home test kit (OR = 2.3, 95% CI = 0.92–5.5). Respondents with less knowledge were less likely to use a home test kit. Conclusions: MSF were concerned about HIV in their community and would be willing to use to a home test kit. This pilot study provides a basis for additional research related to HIV testing within the MSF community.ECU Open Access Publishing Support Fun

Clinical Prognostic Value of RNA Viral Load and CD4 Cell Counts during Untreated HIV-1 Infection—A Quantitative Review

Background: The prognostic value of CD4 counts and RNA viral load for identifying treatment need in HIV-infected individuals depends on (a) variation within and among individuals, and (b) relative risks of clinical progression per unit CD4 or RNA difference. Methodology/Principal Findings: We reviewed these measurements across (a) 30 studies, and (b) 16 cohorts of untreated seropositive adults. Median within-population interquartile ranges were 74,000 copies/mL for RNA with no significant change during the course of infection; and 330 cells/μL for CD4, with a slight proportional increase over infection. Applying measurement and physiological fluctuations observed on chronically infected patients, we estimate that 45% of population-level variation in RNA, and 25% of variation in CD4, were due to within-patient fluctuations. Comparing a patient with RNA at upper 75th centile with a patient at median RNA, 5-year relative risks were 1.4 (95% CI 1.2-1.7) for AIDS and 1.5 (1.3-1.9) for death, without change over the course of infection. In contrast, for a patient with CD4 count at the lower 75th centile, relative risks increased from 1.0 at seroconversion to maxima of 6.3 (4.4-8.9) for AIDS and 5.5 (2.7-10.1) for death by year 6, when the population median had fallen to 300 cells/ μL. Below 300 cells/μL, prognostic power did not increase, due to a narrower CD4 range. Conclusions: Findings support the current WHO recommendation (used with clinical criteria) to start antiretroviral treatment in low-income settings at CD4 thresholds of 200-350 cells/μL, without pre-treatment RNA monitoring - while not precluding earlier treatment based on clinical, socio-demographic or public health criteria

Respiratory Symptoms and Airway Obstruction in HIV-Infected Subjects in the HAART Era

Background: Prevalence and risk factors for respiratory symptoms and airway obstruction in HIV-infected subjects in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) are unknown. We evaluated respiratory symptoms and measured airway obstruction to identify the impact of HAART and other risk factors on respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function. Methodology/Principal Findings: Two hundred thirty-four HIV-infected adults without acute respiratory symptoms were recruited from an HIV clinic. All subjects were interviewed and performed spirometry. Multivariate linear and logistic regressions were performed to determine predictors of respiratory symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) percent predicted, and FEV1/forced vital capacity (FEV1 / FVC). Thirty-one percent of subjects reported at least one respiratory symptom. Smoking status (current or former versus never) (odds ratio [OR] = 2.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.41-5.22, p = 0.003), higher log plasma HIV viral levels (OR = 1.12, 95%CI = 1.02-1.24, p = 0.02), and lower FEV1/FVC (OR = 1.06 for every 0.01 decrease in FEV1/FVC, 95%CI = 1.02-1.14, p = 0.001) were independent predictors of respiratory symptoms. Age (p = 0.04), pack-year smoking history (p<0.001), previous bacterial pneumonia (p = 0.007), and HAART use (p = 0.04) were independent predictors of decreased FEV1/FVC. Conclusions/Significance: Respiratory symptoms remain common in HIV-infected subjects, especially in those with a smoking history. Subjects who were older, had a greater pack-year history of smoking, or previous bacterial pneumonia had lower FEV1/FVC ratios. Interestingly, use of HAART was independently associated with a decreased FEV1/FVC, possibly secondary to an immune response to subclinical infections, increased autoimmunity, or other factors associated with HAART use. © 2009 George et al

A survey on use of rapid tests and tuberculosis diagnostic practices by primary health care providers in South Africa: implications for the development of new point-of-care tests

BACKGROUND: Effective infectious disease control requires early diagnosis and treatment initiation. Point-of-care testing offers rapid turn-around-times, facilitating same day clinical management decisions. To maximize the benefits of such POC testing programs, we need to understand how rapid tests are used in everyday clinical practice. METHODS: In this cross-sectional survey study, 400 primary healthcare providers in two cities in South Africa were interviewed on their use of rapid tests in general, and tuberculosis diagnostic practices, between September 2012 and June 2013. Public healthcare facilities were selected using probability-sampling techniques and private healthcare providers were randomly selected from the Health Professional Council of South Africa list. To ascertain differences between the two healthcare sectors 2-sample z-tests were used to compare sample proportions. RESULTS: The numbers of providers interviewed were equally distributed between the public (n = 200) and private sector (n = 200). The most frequently reported tests in the private sector include blood pressure (99.5%), glucose finger prick (89.5%) and urine dipstick (38.5%); and in the public sector were pregnancy (100%), urine dipstick (100%), blood pressure (100%), glucose finger prick (99%) and HIV rapid test (98%). The majority of TB testing occurs in the public sector, where significantly more providers prefer Xpert MTB/RIF assay, the designated clinical TB diagnostic tool by the national TB program, as compared to the private sector (87% versus 71%, p-value >0.0001). Challenges with regard to TB diagnosis included the long laboratory turn-around-time, difficulty in obtaining sputum samples and lost results. All providers indicated that a new POC test for TB should be rapid and cheap, have good sensitivity and specificity, ease of sample acquisition, detect drug-resistance and work in HIV-infected persons. Conclusion/significance The existing centralized laboratory services, poor quality assurance, and lack of staff capacity deter the use of more rapid tests at POC. Further research into the practices and choices of these providers is necessary to aid the development of new POC tests