Resistance of mature T cells to oncogene transformation

Nach den ersten Erfolgen der Gentherapie bei angeborenen Immundefekten wurden einige Fälle von Leukämie nach gammaretroviralem Gentransfer in Blutstammzellen bei Patienten mit „severe combined immunodeficiency“ (SCID-X1) veröffentlicht. Diese entfachten eine Diskussion über das Risiko der Insertionsmutagenese bei der Verwendung gammaretroviraler Vektoren. Durch eine insertionsbedingte Transaktivierung potentieller Onkogene und damit verbundenen malignen Veränderungen können gammaretroviral transduzierte Blutstammzellen Leukämien hervorrufen. Aber nicht nur Blutstammzellen werden als Zielzellen in der Gentherapie genutzt. In der Gruppe von Laer wurde in den letzten Jahren eine neue Gentherapie der HIV-1 Infektion entwickelt. Hierbei werden dem Patienten genetisch geschützte, autologe T-Lymphozyten infundiert. Die Gefahr einer Leukämie durch Insertionsmutagenese sollte im Zuge dieser Studie für reife T-Lymphozyten evaluiert werden. In einer vergleichenden Analyse wurde untersucht, ob der gammaretrovirale Gentransfer in reife T-Lymphozyten die gleiche Genotoxizität birgt wie in hämatopoetische Stammzellen. Hierzu wurden reife T-Lymphozyten und hämatopoetische Progenitoren von C57BL/6(Ly5.1)-Mäusen mit multiplen Kopien gammaretroviraler Vektoren transduziert, die für die potenten T-Zell Onkogene LMO2, TCL1, dTrkA oder das Kontrollgen GFP kodierten. Es wurden sehr hohe Transduktionseffizienzen mit bis zu 70% für reife T-Lymphozyten und bis zu 98% für hämatopoetische Progenitoren erzielt, um möglichst leukämiefördernde Bedingungen zu schaffen. Nach Transplantation in kongene Rag-1 defiziente Empfängertiere (Ly5.2) entwickelten Onkogen-modifizierte Stammzellen nach einer charakteristischen Latenzperiode Leukämien/Lymphome. Am häufigsten wurden unreife, CD8+CD4+ doppelpositive T-Vorläufer Leukämien/Lymphome beobachtet. In einigen Rezipienten führte außerdem eine Überexpression von TCL1 in hämatopoetischen Stammzellen zu der Entwicklung von reifzelligen T-Zell Leukämien/Lymphomen und B-Zell Leukämien/Lymphomen. Die Integrationsanalyse ergab oligo- bis monoklonale Tumore, wobei keine offensichtlich tumorfördernden, die gammaretroviralen Insertionen flankierenden Gene identifiziert werden konnten. Bemerkenswerterweise entwickelte keines der T-Zell transplantierten Empfängertiere ein/e Lymphom/Leukämie, obwohl auch diese Zellen mit den gleichen Vektoren modifiziert wurden und über einen sehr langen Zeitraum persistierten. Um die Kontrollmechanismen dieser Resistenz näher zu untersuchen, wurde eine für den TCR monoklonale, adulte T-Zell Population mit dTrkA transduziert. Nach einer kurzen Latenzperiode entwickelten sich reifzellige T-Zell Leukämien/Lymphome. Anscheinend existiert eine Verbindung zwischen der relativen Transformationsresistenz reifer T-Lymphozyten und dem Konkurrenzverhalten verschiedener T-Zell Klone um stimulatorische MHC-TCR Nischen. Weiterhin wurde in vitro durch gammaretroviralen Transfer von LMO2 ein immortalisierter T-Zell Klon generiert. Dieser zeigte zwar nach einer langen Beobachtungszeit einen CD8-CD4-doppelnegativen Phänotyp, aber auch einen rekombinierten TCR. In vitro überwuchs er eine unmanipulierte Kompetitorpopulation, konnte jedoch nach Transplantation kein/e T-Zell Lymphom/Leukämie induzieren. Die LM-PCR Analyse des Klons lieferte eine sehr interessante Integration zwischen den Genen für die alpha-Ketten des IL-2 und des IL-15 Rezeptors, welche dadurch konstitutiv exprimiert wurden. Dies könnte das erste Beispiel für eine insertionsbedingte Immortalisierung eines adulten T-Zell Klons sein. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte zum ersten Mal eindeutig gezeigt werden, dass polyklonale, reife T-Zell Populationen in vivo eine hohe Transformationsresistenz aufweisen. Durch bestimmte Bedingungen können jedoch durchaus maligne Veränderung adulter, reifer T-Lymphozyten induziert werden. Für die Sicherheitsabschätzung gammaretroviraler Gentherapie-Studien mit reifen T-Lymphozyten sind die vorgestellten Ergebnisse von großer Bedeutung und könnten darüber hinaus Aufschluss über die populationsdynamischen Kontrollmechanismen reifer T-Zell Leukämien/Lymphome geben.Leukemia caused by retroviral insertional mutagenesis after stem-cell gene transfer has been reported in several experimental animals and in patients treated for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. Here, we analyzed whether gene transfer into mature T cells bears the same genotoxic risk. To address this issue in an experimental "worst case scenario", we transduced mature T cells and hematopoietic progenitor cells from C57BL/6 (Ly5.1) donor mice with high copy numbers of gamma retroviral vectors encoding the potent T-cell oncogenes LMO2, TCL1, or dTrkA, a constitutively active mutant of TrkA. After transplantation into RAG-1- deficient recipients (Ly5.2), animals that received stem cell transplants developed T-cell lymphoma/leukemia for all investigated oncogenes with a characteristic phenotype and after characteristic latency periods. Ligation-mediated polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed monoclonality or oligoclonality of the malignancies. In striking contrast, none of the mice that received T-cell transplants transduced with the same vectors developed leukemia/ lymphoma despite persistence of gene-modified cells. Thus, our data provide direct evidence that mature T cells are less prone to transformation than hemaopoietic progenitor cells

Nodular lymphocyte predominant hodgkin lymphoma and T cell/histiocyte rich large B cell lymphoma : endpoints of a spectrum of one disease?

In contrast to the commonly indolent clinical behavior of nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma (NLPHL), T cell/histiocyte rich large B cell lymphoma (THRLBCL) is frequently diagnosed in advanced clinical stages and has a poor prognosis. Besides the different clinical presentations of these lymphoma entities, there are variants of NLPHL with considerable histopathologic overlap compared to THRLBCL. Especially THRLBCL-like NLPHL, a diffuse form of NLPHL, often presents a histopathologic pattern similar to THRLBCL, suggesting a close relationship between both lymphoma entities. To corroborate this hypothesis, we performed gene expression profiling of microdissected tumor cells of NLPHL, THRLBCL-like NLPHL and THRLBCL. In unsupervised analyses, the lymphomas did not cluster according to their entity. Moreover, even in supervised analyses, very few consistently differentially expressed transcripts were found, and for these genes the extent of differential expression was only moderate. Hence, there are no clear and consistent differences in the gene expression of the tumor cells of NLPHL, THRLBCL-like NLPHL and THRLBCL. Based on the gene expression studies, we identified BAT3/BAG6, HIGD1A, and FAT10/UBD as immunohistochemical markers expressed in the tumor cells of all three lymphomas. Characterization of the tumor microenvironment for infiltrating T cells and histiocytes revealed significant differences in the cellular composition between typical NLPHL and THRLBCL cases. However, THRLBCL-like NLPHL presented a histopathologic pattern more related to THRLBCL than NLPHL. In conclusion, NLPHL and THRLBCL may represent a spectrum of the same disease. The different clinical behavior of these lymphomas may be strongly influenced by differences in the lymphoma microenvironment, possibly related to the immune status of the patient at the timepoint of diagnosis

Actionable perturbations of damage responses by TCL1/ATM and epigenetic lesions form the basis of T-PLL

T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL) is a rare and poor-prognostic mature T-cell malignancy. Here we integrated large-scale profiling data of alterations in gene expression, allelic copy number (CN), and nucleotide sequences in 111 well-characterized patients. Besides prominent signatures of T-cell activation and prevalent clonal variants, we also identify novel hot-spots for CN variability, fusion molecules, alternative transcripts, and progression-associated dynamics. The overall lesional spectrum of T-PLL is mainly annotated to axes of DNA damage responses, T-cell receptor/cytokine signaling, and histone modulation. We formulate a multi-dimensional model of T-PLL pathogenesis centered around a unique combination of TCL1 overexpression with damaging ATM aberrations as initiating core lesions. The effects imposed by TCL1 cooperate with compromised ATM toward a leukemogenic phenotype of impaired DNA damage processing. Dysfunctional ATM appears inefficient in alleviating elevated redox burdens and telomere attrition and in evoking a p53-dependent apoptotic response to genotoxic insults. As non-genotoxic strategies, synergistic combinations of p53 reactivators and deacetylase inhibitors reinstate such cell death execution.Peer reviewe

Engineering HIV-Resistant Human CD4+ T Cells with CXCR4-Specific Zinc-Finger Nucleases

HIV-1 entry requires the cell surface expression of CD4 and either the CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptors on host cells. Individuals homozygous for the ccr5Δ32 polymorphism do not express CCR5 and are protected from infection by CCR5-tropic (R5) virus strains. As an approach to inactivating CCR5, we introduced CCR5-specific zinc-finger nucleases into human CD4+ T cells prior to adoptive transfer, but the need to protect cells from virus strains that use CXCR4 (X4) in place of or in addition to CCR5 (R5X4) remains. Here we describe engineering a pair of zinc finger nucleases that, when introduced into human T cells, efficiently disrupt cxcr4 by cleavage and error-prone non-homologous DNA end-joining. The resulting cells proliferated normally and were resistant to infection by X4-tropic HIV-1 strains. CXCR4 could also be inactivated in ccr5Δ32 CD4+ T cells, and we show that such cells were resistant to all strains of HIV-1 tested. Loss of CXCR4 also provided protection from X4 HIV-1 in a humanized mouse model, though this protection was lost over time due to the emergence of R5-tropic viral mutants. These data suggest that CXCR4-specific ZFNs may prove useful in establishing resistance to CXCR4-tropic HIV for autologous transplant in HIV-infected individuals

Basal autophagy is pivotal for Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells' survival and growth revealing a new strategy for Hodgkin lymphoma treatment

As current classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) treatment strategies have pronounced side-effects, specific inhibition of signaling pathways may offer novel strategies in cHL therapy. Basal autophagy, a regulated catabolic pathway to degrade cell's own components, is in cancer linked with both, tumor suppression or promotion. The finding that basal autophagy enhances tumor cell survival would thus lead to immediately testable strategies for novel therapies. Thus, we studied its contribution in cHL.We found constitutive activation of autophagy in cHL cell lines and primary tissue. The expression of key autophagy-relevant proteins (e.g. Beclin-1, ULK1) and LC3 processing was increased in cHL cells, even in lymphoma cases. Consistently, cHL cells exhibited elevated numbers of autophagic vacuoles and intact autophagic flux. Autophagy inhibition with chloroquine or inactivation of ATG5 induced apoptosis and reduced proliferation of cHL cells. Chloroquine-mediated inhibition of basal autophagy significantly impaired HL growth in-vivo in NOD SCID γc-/- (NSG) mice. We found that basal autophagy plays a pivotal role in sustaining mitochondrial function.We conclude that cHL cells require basal autophagy for growth, survival and sustained metabolism making them sensitive to autophagy inhibition. This suggests basal autophagy as useful target for new strategies in cHL treatment

Mathematical modeling of oncogenesis control in mature T-cell populations

T-cell receptor (TCR) polyclonal mature T cells are surprisingly resistant to oncogenic transformation after retroviral insertion of T-cell oncogenes. In a mouse model, it has been shown that mature T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (MTCLL) is not induced upon transplantation of mature, TCR polyclonal wild-type (WT) T cells, transduced with gammaretroviral vectors encoding potent T-cell oncogenes, into RAG1-deficient recipients. However, further studies demonstrated that quasi-monoclonal T cells treated with the same protocol readily induced MTCLL in the recipient mice. It has been hypothesized that in the TCR polyclonal situation, outgrowth of preleukemic cells and subsequent conversion to overt malignancy is suppressed through regulation of clonal abundances on a per-clone basis due to interactions between TCRs and self-peptide-MHC-complexes (spMHCs), while these mechanisms fail in the quasi-monoclonal situation. To quantitatively study this hypothesis, we applied a mathematical modeling approach. In particular, we developed a novel ordinary differential equation model of T-cell homeostasis, in which T-cell fate depends on spMHC-TCR-interaction-triggered stimulatory signals from antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Based on our mathematical modeling approach, we identified parameter configurations of our model, which consistently explain the observed phenomena. Our results suggest that the preleukemic cells are less competent than healthy competitor cells in acquiring survival stimuli from APCs, but that proliferation of these preleukemic cells is less dependent on survival stimuli from APCs. These predictions now call for experimental validation