Leaky bucket Paradoxes in income inequality perceptions: an experimental investigation

Leaky-bucket transactions can be regarded as a generalization of the transfer principle allowing for transaction costs. In its most rudimentary form, leaky-bucket transactions trace out the maximum leakage of transaction costs such that a transfer still pays at the margin. Yet - to pay at the margin - bears at least two different connotations: It could refer to the minimum transactions costs before a welfare loss is experienced, or before income inequality is exacerbated. These two aspects have not always be made explicit in earlier work. This notion suggests that a smaller, but positive amount of income has to reach the transferee in order to keep the degree of income inequality or the aggregate social welfare at the same level. However, this conjecture is theoretically wrong for the degree of income inequality, and partly wrong for aggregate social welfare. Rather there exists a unique benchmark such that the above holds only for transfers among income recipients below the benchmark. When they are both above the benchmark, then the transferee has to be given more than the amount taken from the transferor, and when they are on opposite sides of the benchmark, both should experience an income loss. Notice that these three cases cover only progressive transfers. Three more cases apply to regressive transfers, and six more cases apply to income donations. Each of these twelve cases ordains different theoretical results. Yet experimental research, calibrated against the Atkinson, generalized Gini, and entropy income inequality measures and their associated social welfare functions, shows that this generalized theory of the transfer principle is as poorly evidenced as is the plain transfer principle. This applies both to the income-inequality approach and to the social-welfare approach. At most one third of the subjects behave sometimes according to theory. The rest seems to follow some notion of compensating justice: If someone loses (gains) income, the other person involved should be negatively (positively) compensated to maintain the alleged degree of income inequality. This behavioral pattern is, however, at variance with theory

Compensating justice beats leaky buckets: an experimental investigation

Leaky-bucket transactions can be regarded as income transfers allowing for transaction costs. In its most rudimentary form, leaky-bucket transactions trace out the maximum "leakage" of transaction costs before income inequality is exacerbated, or before a welfare loss is experienced. This notion suggests that part of the income transfer should reach the transferee in order to keep the degree of income inequality or social welfare intact. However, in general, this conjecture is theoretically wrong. Rather there exists a unique benchmark such that it holds only for transfers among income recipients below the benchmark. When both are above the benchmark, the transferee has to be given more than the amount taken from the transferor, and when they are on opposite sides of the benchmark, both should experience an income loss. These three cases cover progressive transfers only. Three more cases apply to regressive transfers, and six more cases apply to income gains. Each of these twelve cases is covered by the present paper. Yet experimental research for three families of renowned income inequality measures and their associated social welfare functions shows poor empirical evidence. Subjects' perceptions to maintain the degree of income inequality rather follow a simple precept: If someone gains income, the other person involved should be positively compensated, and if someone loses income, the other person involved should be negatively compensated. This expresses sort of compensating justice rather than restoration of the former degree of income inequality, or of the former level of social welfare. It requires different axioms of inequality measurement to comply with subjects' perceptions

Revers-genetische Charakterisierung des subgenomischen Promotors des Maus-Norovirus

Das Norovirus gilt nach aktuellen epidemiologischen Studien als der wichtigste Erreger akuter viraler Gastroenteritiden weltweit. In der Norovirus-Forschung ist es schwierig, neue Informationen über den Lebenszyklus und die Pathogenese zu erhalten, da humane Noroviren nicht in-vitro replizieren. Das murine Norovirus (MNV) wurde 2003 entdeckt und gilt wegen seiner genetischen Ähnlichkeit und dem vorhandenen Zellkultursystem als experimenetelles Surrogat für humane Noroviren. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein leicht zu handhabendes und effizientes reverses Genetiksystem für MNV entwickelt. Das Verfahren basiert auf einem T7 RNA-Polymerase-Promotor-System für die in-vitro Transkription von gecappter, infektiöser RNA, welche über die Transfektion in BHK-J Zellen zu einer effizienten Ausbeute an rekombinanten MNV führt. Durch die Verwendung eines PCR-Produktes als Template für die in-vitro Transkription unterscheidet sich dieses reverse Genetiksystem von allen bisher für MNV publizierten Methoden. Neben der Zeitersparnis bietet das Verfahren den Vorteil, dass auf die Unterstützung eines Helfervirus verzichtet werden kann. Dieses reverse Genetiksystem diente als Basis einer Mutagenesestudie des subgenomischen Promotors. Bei Caliciviren besteht der Promotor aus einer Stem-Loop Struktur, welche sich kurz vor ORF2 befindet. Ein systematisches Scanning dieses Sequenzabschnittes durch Einfach- und Doppel-mutanten erfolgte. Die Analyse der letalen Punktmutationen im Stem-Loop zeigte, dass jegliche strukturelle Veränderung sich nachteilig auf die Virus-Replikation auswirkt. Zweifachmutanten bestätigten dieses Ergebnis, da in korrespondierenden Strukturelementen replizierende Doppel-mutanten dann erhalten werden konnten, wenn die Mutationen eine in der Einzelmutante verloren gegangene Basenpaarung wiederherstellten. Ein Scanning des angrenzenden 5‘-Genomabschnittes zeigte keine tolerierte Mutation, bei einer vor dem Promotor liegenden Sequenz von fast 1000 Nukleotiden. Eine genaue Bestimmung des subgenomische Promotors in 5‘-Richtung war nicht möglich, da die mutagenisierten Sequenzelemente wahrscheinlich noch andere essentielle Funktionen übernehmen. Nichtreplizierende Promotormutanten zeigten weder auf der Transkriptions- noch auf der Translationsebene Aktivität im Northern- oder Western Blot. Mutanten, die keine subgenomische RNA produzieren, exprimieren auch keine Nichtstrukturproteine. Demnach kontrolliert der subgenomische Promotor nicht nur die subgenomische RNA-Synthese, sondern auch die vollständige Virus-Replikation. Durch Trennung von ORF1 und ORF2 und Insertion von 17 zusätzlichen Nukleotiden an dieser Position resultierte kein nachteiliger Effekt auf die Replikation. In Zukunft könnte deshalb die Insertion einer exogenen Sequenz eine Möglichkeit zur Herstellung eines Norovirus-Reportervirus liefern

Europe’s proposed capital markets union: how disruptive technologies will drive investment and innovation

An EU capital markets union (CMU) has been proposed with the aim of revitalising Europe’s economy by creating efficient funding channels between providers of loanable funds and the firms best placed to use them. Jon Danielsson, Eva Micheler, Katja Neugebauer, Andreas Uthemann and Jean-Pierre Zigrand argue that a successful capital markets union would deliver investment, innovation and growth, but would rely on overcoming difficult regulatory challenges. They note that if it were successfully implemented, the proposed CMU could also change the nature of systemic risk in Europe

The In Vivo Kinetics of RNA Polymerase II Elongation during Co-Transcriptional Splicing

Kinetic analysis shows that RNA polymerase elongation kinetics are not modulated by co-transcriptional splicing and that post-transcriptional splicing can proceed at the site of transcription without the presence of the polymerase

Randomized, controlled, two-arm, interventional, multicenter study on risk-adapted damage control orthopedic surgery of femur shaft fractures in multiple-trauma patients

BACKGROUND: Long bone fractures, particularly of the femur, are common in multiple-trauma patients, but their optimal management has not yet been determined. Although a trend exists toward the concept of “damage control orthopedics” (DCO), current literature is inconclusive. Thus, a need exists for a more specific controlled clinical study. The primary objective of this study was to clarify whether a risk-adapted procedure for treating femoral fractures, as opposed to an early definitive treatment strategy, leads to an improved outcome (morbidity and mortality). METHODS/DESIGN: The study was designed as a randomized controlled multicenter study. Multiple-trauma patients with femur shaft fractures and a calculated probability of death of 20 to 60 % were randomized to either temporary fracture fixation with external fixation and defined secondary definitive treatment (DCO) or primary reamed nailing (early total care). The primary objective was to reduce the extent of organ failure as measured by the maximum sepsis-related organ failure assessment (SOFA) score. RESULTS: Thirty-four patients were randomized to two groups of 17 patients each. Both groups were comparable regarding sex, age, injury severity score, Glasgow Coma Scale, prothrombin time, base excess, calculated probability of death, and other physiologic variables. The maximum SOFA score was comparable (nonsignificant) between the groups. Regarding the secondary endpoints, the patients with external fixation required a significantly longer ventilation period (p = 0.049) and stayed on the intensive care significantly longer (p = 0.037), whereas the in-hospital length of stay was balanced for both groups. Unfortunately, the study had to be terminated prior to reaching the anticipated sample size because of unexpected low patient recruitment. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, the results of this randomized study reflect the ambivalence in the literature. No advantage of the damage control concept could be detected in the treatment of femur fractures in multiple-trauma patients. The necessity for scientific evaluation of this clinically relevant question remains. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN10321620 Date assigned: 9 February 2007. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1162-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

The In Vivo Kinetics of RNA Polymerase II Elongation during Co-Transcriptional Splicing

Kinetic analysis shows that RNA polymerase elongation kinetics are not modulated by co-transcriptional splicing and that post-transcriptional splicing can proceed at the site of transcription without the presence of the polymerase

Feasibility of a cohort study on health risks caused by occupational exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields

Breckenkamp J, Berg-Beckhoff G, Muenster E, et al. Feasibility of a cohort study on health risks caused by occupational exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Environmental Health. 2009;8(1):23.Background: The aim of this study was to examine the feasibility of performing a cohort study on health risks from occupational exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in Germany. Methods: A set of criteria was developed to evaluate the feasibility of such a cohort study. The criteria aimed at conditions of exposure and exposure assessment (level, duration, preferably on an individual basis), the possibility to assemble a cohort and the feasibility of ascertaining various disease endpoints. Results: Twenty occupational settings with workers potentially exposed to RF-EMF and, in addition, a cohort of amateur radio operators were considered. Based on expert ratings, literature reviews and our set of predefined criteria, three of the cohorts were identified as promising for further evaluation: the personnel (technicians) of medium/short wave broadcasting stations, amateur radio operators, and workers on dielectric heat sealers. After further analyses, the cohort of workers on dielectric heat sealers seems not to be feasible due to the small number of exposed workers available and to the difficulty of assessing exposure (exposure depends heavily on the respective working process and mixture of exposures, e.g. plastic vapours), although exposure was highest in this occupational setting. The advantage of the cohort of amateur radio operators was the large number of persons it includes, while the advantage of the cohort of personnel working at broadcasting stations was the quality of retrospective exposure assessment. However, in the cohort of amateur radio operators the exposure assessment was limited, and the cohort of technicians was hampered by the small number of persons working in this profession. Conclusion: The majority of occupational groups exposed to RF-EMF are not practicable for setting up an occupational cohort study due to the small numbers of exposed subjects or due to exposure levels being only marginally higher than those of the general public

Protocol for a randomized controlled trial on risk adapted damage control orthopedic surgery of femur shaft fractures in multiple trauma patients

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Fractures of the long bones and femur fractures in particular are common in multiple trauma patients, but the optimal management of femur fractures in these patients is not yet resolved. Although there is a trend towards the concept of "Damage Control Orthopedics" (DCO) in the management of multiple trauma patients with long bone fractures as reflected by a significant increase in primary external fixation of femur fractures, current literature is insufficient. Thus, in the era of "evidence-based medicine", there is the need for a more specific, clarifying trial.</p> <p>Methods/Design</p> <p>The trial is designed as a randomized controlled open-label multicenter study. Multiple trauma patients with femur shaft fractures and a calculated probability of death between 20 and 60% will be randomized to either temporary fracture fixation with fixateur externe and defined secondary definitive treatment (DCO) or primary reamed nailing (early total care). The primary objective is to reduce the extent of organ failure as measured by the maximum sepsis-related organ failure assessment (SOFA) score.</p> <p>Discussion</p> <p>The Damage Control Study is the first to evaluate the risk adapted damage control orthopedic surgery concept of femur shaft fractures in multiple trauma patients in a randomized controlled design. The trial investigates the differences in clinical outcome of two currently accepted different ways of treating multiple trauma patients with femoral shaft fractures. This study will help to answer the question whether the "early total care" or the „damage control” concept is associated with better outcome.</p> <p>Trial registration</p> <p>Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN10321620</p