Fonctionnement dynamique du centre d'upwelling Sud-Sénégalais : approche par la modélisation réaliste et l'analyse d'observations satellite de température de surface de la mer

The southern end of the Canary current system comprises of an original upwelling center that has so far received little attention. This Ph.D. Thesis focuses on the dynamical functioning of the Southern Senegal-Gambia Upwelling Center (SSUC). We are interested in the upwelling circulation and thermohaline structure on the shelf between the coastline and 100-200 km offshore. Our focus is on the upwelling period (November to May). The main originality of the SSUC compared to other upwelling centers stems from its continental shelf that is broad and shallow (20–30 m over tens of kilometers). The normal state of the system comprises the classical upwelling front but also a well-defined inner-shelf front that separates cold upwelled waters from nearshore warmer waters. We investigate its dynamical functioning using analysed satellite images, in situ data and state-of-theart 3D numerical simulations. Through a fine-scale analysis of the physical conditions of the SSUC, this work poses the basis of an integrated approach to the Senegalese marine environment functioning. A first part of results is based on the careful examinations and analysis of over 1500 satellite images of sea surface temperature scenes contextualized with respect to wind conditions. Analysis confirm the regularity and stability of the SSUC dynamical functioning (as manifested by the recurrence and persistence of particular SST patterns). The analysis also reveal subtle aspects of its upwelling structure : shelf break cooling of surface waters consistent with internal tide breaking/mixing ; complex interplay between local upwelling and the Mauritanian current off the Cape Verde headland ; complexity of the inner-shelf/mid shelf frontal transition. The amplitude of the diurnal cycle suggests that large uncertainties exist in the SSUC heat budget. The studies limitations underscore the need for continuous in situ measurement in the SSUC, particularly of winds. The dynamical functioning of SSUC is also investigated by means of numerical simulations, using the hydrodynamical Regional Ocean Modeling System ROMS (_x _ 2 km). Different simulations have been carried with varying forcings (climatological or synoptic wind ; fine-scale adjustments of heat flux in coastal area ; presence or absence of tides). Numerical solutions show a good agreement with available satellite and in situ observations . These solutions clarify the dynamical functioning of the system especially in terms of circulation, location of cold water upwelling but also fate of upwelled water through a Lagrangian analysis. We show in particular that the northern part of the SSUC is the main upwelling area. Waters that upwelled in this area predominantly come from the southern of the SSUC, through advection by the Mauritanian current. Lagrangian analysis also revealed the dynamics associated with the coastal area of nursery and nuance the conceptual retention scheme previously admitted. The sensitivity of the dynamics of SSUC to atmospheric forcings is modest with nevertheless some modulations of the cross-shore exchanges that may be important to the ecosystem.L’extrémité sud du système du courant des Canaries comprend un centre d’upwelling (résurgence localisée d’eaux froides sous l’action de vents favorables) qui a jusqu’ici reçu peu d’attention. Ma thèse porte sur la dynamique de ce centre d’upwelling sud Sénégal ou SSUC (Southern Senegal Upwelling Center en anglais). Elle s’intéresse donc à la circulation et à la structure thermohaline sur le large plateau sud-sénégalais, entre la côte et _100-200 km au large en se focalisant sur la période d’upwelling (Novembre-Mai). Une des particularités de la zone est la séparation entre la zone d’upwelling au centre du plateau et des eaux plus chaudes au large et à la côte. Mes travaux combinent analyse d’images satellite et d’observations in-situ, avec la réalisation et l’analyse de simulations numériques dans l’état de l’art. Par une analyse fine des conditions physiques de la zone, ils posent la base à une approche intégrée du fonctionnement de l’environnement marin sénégalais. Une première partie des résultats se base sur l’examen et l’analyse de plus de 1500 images satellite de température de surface de la mer SST MODIS, contextualisées par rapport aux conditions synoptiques de vent. Cette analyse met en lumière l’existence d’états récurrents du SSUC, en termes de SST. Elles confirment plus généralement la régularité et la stabilité du fonctionnement dynamique du système, mais aussi révèlent des aspects subtils de la structure de l’upwelling : refroidissement des eaux de surface probablement dû au déferlement et au mélange associé à la marée interne ; interaction complexe entre la remontée locale, le courant de Mauritanie et le jet côtier ; complexité probable des échanges entre les différentes parties du plateau (plateau intérieur accueillant des eaux réchauffées, plateau central où est fréquemment situé la langue d’eau froide). L’amplitude du cycle diurne suggère que de grandes incertitudes restent à lever dans le budget de chaleur de l’upwelling . Les limites des études soulignent la nécessité de continuer la mesure in situ dans le SSUC, en particulier des vents. Le fonctionnement dynamique du SSUC est aussi étudié par la modélisation hydrodynamique (ROMS) à haute résolution (_2km). Différentes simulations ont été réalisées en variant les forçages (climatologiques ou synoptiques pour le vent ; modification fine échelle des flux de chaleur en domaine côtier ; présence ou absence de marée). Les solutions numériques montrent en général un bon accord avec les observations satellite et in situ disponibles. Ces solutions éclairent le fonctionnement dynamique du système notamment en termes de circulation, de position de remontée d’upwelling, mais également du devenir des eaux upwellées grâce à une analyse lagrangienne. Nous avons notamment pu montrer que la zone nord du SSUC est la zone principale de remontée et les eaux qui y remontent, proviennent en grande majorité de la zone sud du SSUC d’où elles sont amenées par le courant de Mauritanie. Les analyses lagrangiennes ont aussi permis de - 3 - révéler la dynamique associée à la zone côtière de nourricerie et de nuancer le schéma conceptuel de rétention précédemment admis. La sensibilité de la dynamique du SSUC aux forçages atmosphériques est modeste avec néanmoins des modulations des échanges cross-shore qui peuvent être importantes pour l’écosystème

Dynamics functioning of the Southern Senegal upwelling center : realistic modeling approach and remote sensing SST analysis

L’extrémité sud du système du courant des Canaries comprend un centre d’upwelling (résurgence localisée d’eaux froides sous l’action de vents favorables) qui a jusqu’ici reçu peu d’attention. Ma thèse porte sur la dynamique de ce centre d’upwelling sud Sénégal ou SSUC (Southern Senegal Upwelling Center en anglais). Elle s’intéresse donc à la circulation et à la structure thermohaline sur le large plateau sud-sénégalais, entre la côte et _100-200 km au large en se focalisant sur la période d’upwelling (Novembre-Mai). Une des particularités de la zone est la séparation entre la zone d’upwelling au centre du plateau et des eaux plus chaudes au large et à la côte. Mes travaux combinent analyse d’images satellite et d’observations in-situ, avec la réalisation et l’analyse de simulations numériques dans l’état de l’art. Par une analyse fine des conditions physiques de la zone, ils posent la base à une approche intégrée du fonctionnement de l’environnement marin sénégalais. Une première partie des résultats se base sur l’examen et l’analyse de plus de 1500 images satellite de température de surface de la mer SST MODIS, contextualisées par rapport aux conditions synoptiques de vent. Cette analyse met en lumière l’existence d’états récurrents du SSUC, en termes de SST. Elles confirment plus généralement la régularité et la stabilité du fonctionnement dynamique du système, mais aussi révèlent des aspects subtils de la structure de l’upwelling : refroidissement des eaux de surface probablement dû au déferlement et au mélange associé à la marée interne ; interaction complexe entre la remontée locale, le courant de Mauritanie et le jet côtier ; complexité probable des échanges entre les différentes parties du plateau (plateau intérieur accueillant des eaux réchauffées, plateau central où est fréquemment situé la langue d’eau froide). L’amplitude du cycle diurne suggère que de grandes incertitudes restent à lever dans le budget de chaleur de l’upwelling . Les limites des études soulignent la nécessité de continuer la mesure in situ dans le SSUC, en particulier des vents. Le fonctionnement dynamique du SSUC est aussi étudié par la modélisation hydrodynamique (ROMS) à haute résolution (_2km). Différentes simulations ont été réalisées en variant les forçages (climatologiques ou synoptiques pour le vent ; modification fine échelle des flux de chaleur en domaine côtier ; présence ou absence de marée). Les solutions numériques montrent en général un bon accord avec les observations satellite et in situ disponibles. Ces solutions éclairent le fonctionnement dynamique du système notamment en termes de circulation, de position de remontée d’upwelling, mais également du devenir des eaux upwellées grâce à une analyse lagrangienne. Nous avons notamment pu montrer que la zone nord du SSUC est la zone principale de remontée et les eaux qui y remontent, proviennent en grande majorité de la zone sud du SSUC d’où elles sont amenées par le courant de Mauritanie. Les analyses lagrangiennes ont aussi permis de - 3 - révéler la dynamique associée à la zone côtière de nourricerie et de nuancer le schéma conceptuel de rétention précédemment admis. La sensibilité de la dynamique du SSUC aux forçages atmosphériques est modeste avec néanmoins des modulations des échanges cross-shore qui peuvent être importantes pour l’écosystème.The southern end of the Canary current system comprises of an original upwelling center that has so far received little attention. This Ph.D. Thesis focuses on the dynamical functioning of the Southern Senegal-Gambia Upwelling Center (SSUC). We are interested in the upwelling circulation and thermohaline structure on the shelf between the coastline and 100-200 km offshore. Our focus is on the upwelling period (November to May). The main originality of the SSUC compared to other upwelling centers stems from its continental shelf that is broad and shallow (20–30 m over tens of kilometers). The normal state of the system comprises the classical upwelling front but also a well-defined inner-shelf front that separates cold upwelled waters from nearshore warmer waters. We investigate its dynamical functioning using analysed satellite images, in situ data and state-of-theart 3D numerical simulations. Through a fine-scale analysis of the physical conditions of the SSUC, this work poses the basis of an integrated approach to the Senegalese marine environment functioning. A first part of results is based on the careful examinations and analysis of over 1500 satellite images of sea surface temperature scenes contextualized with respect to wind conditions. Analysis confirm the regularity and stability of the SSUC dynamical functioning (as manifested by the recurrence and persistence of particular SST patterns). The analysis also reveal subtle aspects of its upwelling structure : shelf break cooling of surface waters consistent with internal tide breaking/mixing ; complex interplay between local upwelling and the Mauritanian current off the Cape Verde headland ; complexity of the inner-shelf/mid shelf frontal transition. The amplitude of the diurnal cycle suggests that large uncertainties exist in the SSUC heat budget. The studies limitations underscore the need for continuous in situ measurement in the SSUC, particularly of winds. The dynamical functioning of SSUC is also investigated by means of numerical simulations, using the hydrodynamical Regional Ocean Modeling System ROMS (_x _ 2 km). Different simulations have been carried with varying forcings (climatological or synoptic wind ; fine-scale adjustments of heat flux in coastal area ; presence or absence of tides). Numerical solutions show a good agreement with available satellite and in situ observations . These solutions clarify the dynamical functioning of the system especially in terms of circulation, location of cold water upwelling but also fate of upwelled water through a Lagrangian analysis. We show in particular that the northern part of the SSUC is the main upwelling area. Waters that upwelled in this area predominantly come from the southern of the SSUC, through advection by the Mauritanian current. Lagrangian analysis also revealed the dynamics associated with the coastal area of nursery and nuance the conceptual retention scheme previously admitted. The sensitivity of the dynamics of SSUC to atmospheric forcings is modest with nevertheless some modulations of the cross-shore exchanges that may be important to the ecosystem

Estimation of the vertical velocities associated with large scale dynamics

International audienceApart from some exceptions (e.g. certain convection movements, small scale turbulence, or surface gravity wave), vertical velocities in the ocean are generally too weak to be measured. In particular, that is the case of the vertical movements associated to the large scale (basin wide) dynamics. This prevents any accurate assessment of the thermohaline circulation return flow and the thermocline vertical ventilation (mass, heat, oxygen and carbon fluxes). A 24 year averaged global run is used to assess the domain of validity of the linear vorticity balance (LVB). In this data set vertical velocities are mainly controlled by the large scale LVB dynamics at subtropical and tropical latitudes. Therefore it should be possible to reconstruct the vertical velocity field by integrating vertically the LVB with an appropriate boundary condition. Various conditions have been tested and it turns out that the condition of no vertical motion at 1000 m is the most promising for applying the same methodology to climatological observations ..

Impact of Synoptic Wind Intensification and Relaxation on the Dynamics and Heat Budget of the South Senegalese Upwelling Sector

International audienceAbstract In addition to their well-known seasonal cycle, eastern boundary upwelling systems (EBUS) undergo modulation on shorter synoptic to intraseasonal time scales. Energetic intensifications and relaxations of upwelling-favorable winds with 5–10-day typical time scales can impact the EBUS dynamics and biogeochemical functioning. In this work the dynamical effects of wind-forced synoptic fluctuations on the South Senegalese Upwelling Sector (SSUS) are characterized. The region geomorphology is unique with its wide continental shelf and a major coastline discontinuity at its northern edge. The ocean response to synoptic events is explored using a modeling framework that involves applying idealized synoptic wind intensification or relaxation to a five-member climatological SSUS ensemble run. Model evaluation against sparse midshelf in situ observations indicates qualitative agreement in terms of synoptic variability of temperature, stratification, and ocean currents, despite a moderate but systematic bias in current intensity. Modeled synoptic wind and heat flux fluctuations produce clear modulations of all dynamical variables with robust SSUS-scale and mesoscale spatial patterns. A mixed layer heat budget analysis is performed over the continental shelf to uncover the dominant processes involved in SSUS synoptic variability. Modulations of horizontal advection and atmospheric forcing are the leading-order drivers of heat changes during either wind intensification or relaxation while vertical dynamics is of primary importance only in a very localized area. Also, modest asymmetries in the oceanic responses to upwelling intensification and relaxation are only identified for meridional velocities. This brings partial support to the hypothesis that synoptic variability has a modest net effect on the climatological state and functioning of upwelling systems dynamics

SST patterns and dynamics of the southern Senegal-Gambia upwelling center

International audienceThe southern end of the Canary current system comprises of an original upwelling center that has so far received little attention, the Southern Senegal-Gambia Upwelling Center (SSUC). We investigate its dynamical functioning by taking advantage of favorable conditions in terms of limited cloud coverage. Analyses and careful examinations of over 1500 satellite images of sea surface temperature scenes contex-tualized with respect to wind conditions confirm the regularity and stability of the SSUC dynamical function-ing (as manifested by the recurrence and persistence of particular SST patterns). The analyses also reveal subtle aspects of its upwelling structure: shelf break cooling of surface waters consistent with internal tide breaking/mixing; complex interplay between local upwelling and the Mauritanian current off the Cape Verde headland; complexity of the inner-shelf/mid shelf frontal transition. The amplitude of the diurnal cycle suggests that large uncertainties exist in the SSUC heat budget. The studies limitations underscore the need for continuous in situ measurement in the SSUC, particularly of winds

On the Dynamics of the Southern Senegal Upwelling Center: Observed Variability from Synoptic to Superinertial Scales

International audienceUpwelling off southern Senegal and Gambia takes place over a wide shelf with a large area where depths are shallower than 20 m. This results in typical upwelling patterns that are distinct (e.g., more persistent in time and aligned alongshore) from those of other better known systems, including Oregon and Peru where inner shelves are comparatively narrow. Synoptic to superinertial variability of this upwelling center is captured through a 4-week intensive field campaign, representing the most comprehensive measurements of this region to date. The influence of mesoscale activity extends across the shelf break and far over the shelf where it impacts the midshelf upwelling (e.g., strength of the upwelling front and circulation), possibly in concert with wind fluctuations. Internal tides and solitary waves of large amplitude are ubiquitous over the shelf. The observations suggest that these and possibly other sources of mixing play a major role in the overall system dynamics through their impact upon the general shelf thermohaline structure, in particular in the vicinity of the upwelling zone. Systematic alongshore variability in thermohaline properties highlights important limitations of the 2D idealization framework that is frequently used in coastal upwelling studies

First Evidence of Anoxia and Nitrogen Loss in the Southern Canary Upwelling System

The northeastern Atlantic hosts the most ventilated subsurface waters of any eastern boundary upwelling system, while coastal upwelling source waters are slightly above hypoxic levels. Anoxic conditions have previously been found offshore inside mesoscale eddies whose core waters undergo oxygen consumption for many months. Based on circumstantial in situ observations, this study demonstrates that the Senegalese coastal ocean is subjected to episodic occurrence of zero dissolved oxygen concentration at depth along with elevated nitrite concentration (11 mmol/m3) and nitrate/nitrite deficit to phosphate, thereby indicating severe anoxia and intense nitrogen loss. The anoxic event was associated with a prolonged upwelling relaxation episode in March 2012 and a nearshore diatom bloom that underwent degradation while being advected offshore in stratified waters. This is consistent with scenarios observed in other upwelling systems (Benguela and California), and such conditions are presumably frequent in the southern part of the Canary system

Dynamics of a “low-enrichment high-retention” upwelling center over the southern Senegal shelf

International audienceSenegal is the southern tip of the Canary upwelling system. Its coastal ocean hosts an upwelling center which shapes sea surface temperatures between latitudes 12 ∘ and 15 ∘ N. Near this latter latitude, the Cape Verde headland and a sudden change in shelf cross-shore profile are major sources of heterogeneity in the southern Senegal upwelling sector (SSUS). SSUS dynamics is investigated by means of Regional Ocean Modeling System simulations. Configuration realism and resolution (Δx ≈ 2 km) are sufficient to reproduce the SSUS frontal system. Our main focus is on the 3-D upwelling circulation which turns out to be profoundly different from 2-D theory: cold water injection onto the shelf and upwelling are strongly concentrated within a few tens of kilometers south of Cape Verde and largely arise from flow divergence in the alongshore direction; a significant fraction of the upwelled waters are retained nearshore over long distances while travelling southward under the influence of northerly winds. Another source of complexity, regional-scale alongshore pressure gradients, also contributes to the overall retention of upwelled waters over the shelf. Varying the degree of realism of atmospheric and oceanic forcings does not appreciably change these conclusions. This study sheds light on the dynamics and circulation underlying the recurrent sea surface temperature pattern observed during the upwelling season and offers new perspectives on the connections between the SSUS physical environment and its ecosystems. It also casts doubt on the validity of upwelling intensity estimations based on simple Ekman upwelling indices at such local scales

Contribution of mathematical modeling to the ecosystem approach to fisheries management and the marine environment (EAMME) : the AWA experience

ICAWA : International Conference AWA, Mindelo, CPV, 13-/11/2017 - 17/11/2017Since the onset of AWA, a number of studies have focused on the management and ecology in West Africa. Here we provide a short insight of the main highlights on a selection of contrasted modelling case studies. Understanding the functioning of the ecosystem is essential to promote ecosystem approach to fisheries management and the marine environment (EAMME) and path providing advices to decision makers and managers. In the EAMME, the civil society addressed various questions to AWA on which specific models have been developed to provide at least first insight to the answers, e.g., on the effect of artificial reef implementation in marine protected area; the possible equilibriums between national fisheries sharing a same trans-boundary fish stock; the feedback between local exploitation, fish market and fisheries mobility, the responses of a fishery to economic, biologic and management parameters, the spatial variability of primary productivity as well oceanographic circulation at regional level or the fish egg advection over the continental shelf. More complex modelling exercise have also been conducted taking advantage of previous research led on sardinella aurita. In this way a coupled model taking into account environmental variability, fish growth and spatial behaviour was developed. We present as example new hypothesis on adult mediated connectivity between EEZ, inter-annual variability and interest to work on climate change with such model. We propose a prospective of what further research could be conducted to continue to bring up relevant information for a sub-regional EAMME in North West Africa fostering exchanges between modellers and marine scientists and all stakeholders