Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Human–Wildlife Conflicts in the Kenya Greater Tsavo Ecosystem

Biodiversity conservation in developing countries is faced with many and mounting challenges, including increasing human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs). In Africa and other developing countries, increasing HWCs, particularly those adjacent to protected areas, can adversely affect local stakeholder perceptions and support for conservation. We analyzed HWC reports for multiple wildlife species compiled \u3e23 years (1995–2017) from the Greater Tsavo Ecosystem (GTE) in Kenya to determine HWC trends. The GTE is the largest protected area in Kenya, covering 22,681 km2. Overall, 39,022 HWC incidents were reported in 6 GTE regions (i.e., Taveta, Mutomo, Kibwezi, Rombo, Galana, Bachuma). The 5 wildlife species most often implicated in HWC incidents were the African elephant (Loxodonta africana, 61.6%, n = 24,032), nonhuman primates (11.5%, n = 4,480), buffalo (Syncerus caffer, 6.2%, n = 2,432 ), African lion (Panthera leo, 4.2%, n = 1,645), and the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius, 3.8%, n = 1,497). The HWC reports also revealed spatial distinctions across the 6 GTE regions. More human–elephant conflicts (HECs; 43.3%, n = 10,427) were reported in the Taveta region than other regions. The Mutomo region was the epicenter of primate, snake, and python (Python spp.) conflicts. More large carnivore depredations on livestock were reported in the Taveta, Rombo, and Mutomo regions. Lions, spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and leopards (P. pardus) were implicated in more livestock depredations than other carnivores. The number of HWCs reported varied by year and season and were related to similar variations in the availability, quality, and distribution of food and water governed by rainfall fluctuations. Reported HECs were positively and linearly related to human, elephant, and livestock population densities. The Kenya Wildlife Service responded to \u3e90% of the reported HWCs. In general, the number of HWCs and trends reported were higher in the regions that also exhibited the highest human population growth rates and densities. Sustainable biodiversity conservation in human-dominated landscapes is contingent upon communities deriving meaningful benefits from wildlife conservation. Far-sighted measures and different conservation approaches are required to mitigate HWCs in communities neighboring protected areas

Human-Wildlife Conflicts and Compensation for Losses in Kenya: Dynamics, Characteristics and Correlates

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a common phenomenon around the world and occurs when resource use by humans overlaps with that of wildlife resulting in competition. The major factor exacerbating this situation is human population growth whose secondary effects cascade to land use change, habitat fragmentation, increased livestock numbers, settlements and anthropogenic climate change. Africa, and in particular Kenya, is faced with rapid population growth and highly variable climatic conditions such as extreme floods and prolonged droughts. HWC is common in Kenya because of the high wildlife population and diversity and because most wildlife are found in communal lands outside protected areas (PA). The major conflict types in Kenya are crop raiding, attacks on humans (causing death or injury), livestock depredation, and property damage. HWC negatively impacts the livelihoods of people and therefore people often retaliate by killing the offending wildlife. Thus, HWC threaten biodiversity conservation and may lead to local extinction of some species. In Kenya, two regions contain most of the wildlife, namely the Mara Region in Narok County which hosts the famous Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) and the Greater Tsavo Ecosystem (GTE) found in south eastern Kenya. The two regions are inhabited by people who have adopted different lifestyles to earn their livelihoods. The Mara region is settled predominantly by the pastoral Maasai community and the GTE is occupied mostly by different communities who practice agriculture. The common fauna in both the Mara and Tsavo consist of large herbivores like the African elephant, African buffalo, and Burchell's zebra. Large carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, and spotted hyena are also found as are nonhuman primates, including baboons and monkeys. We analyzed whether there were differences in the relative frequencies of HWC for 15 years (2001 to 2016) based on data collected by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). The elephant was the leading species causing crop damage, followed by nonhuman primates and buffalo. The lion and spotted hyena were the leading causes of livestock depredation. Interestingly, fewer people felt threatened by wildlife in the Mara than in the Tsavo region, likely because of the historical co-existence and tolerance of wildlife by the Maasai community. In the Greater Tsavo Ecosystem (GTE) (1995-2017), the elephant and nonhuman primates caused most crop raiding conflicts, but distinct spatial differences were apparent such that the Taveta region was an elephant conflict hotspot while snake conflicts were the highest in Mutomo. Moreover, elephant conflicts were positively and linearly related with human, elephant and livestock densities. Besides there was strong positive average trend because rainfall is the principal climatic component governing variation in food and water availability. For the Mara region, we analyzed HWC and their correlates for the period 2001 - 2017. Three carnivores caused most livestock depredation with the lion killing most of the cattle whereas the leopard and spotted hyena killed the smaller sheep and goats. The elephant was the leading crop raiding species and preferentially fed on maize and wheat while the nonhuman primates were responsible for most tuber crop destruction. One method of ameliorating these conflicts is compensation for losses. We analyzed compensation payments by the government of Kenya in 2007 - 2016. Snakes were the leading cause of human deaths and injuries in dry regions of Kenya. HWC increased with increase in the percentage area under protection in each county. HWC also varied with population demography such that more males than females and more adults than children suffered from HWC incidents. The level of resource allocated for preventing or mitigating HWC should portray regional and spatial distinctions. Seasonality in HWC can be addressed by adopting crops that mature at different times and are less palatable where the risk of crop raiding is high. High livestock depredation can be minimized through better husbandry practices. People living with wildlife also need to benefit more from conservation. The national compensation scheme for HWC losses requires adequate funding to cater for the increasing HWC cases

Data for: Human-wildlife conflicts and their correlates in Narok County, Kenya

S1 Data: Human-wildlife conflicts data in Narok County 2001-2017. S2 Data: Human population and densities in regions of Narok County 1962-2017 S3 Data: Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing (DRSRS) Livestock sample estimates in Narok 1997-2016 S4 Data: Total annual rainfall In Narok County 1966 - 2017 S5 Data: Annual average minimum and maximum temperatures for Narok County 1965 - 2016 S6 Data: Correlates of human-wildlife conflicts used in the modelin

Human-wildlife conflicts and their correlates in Narok County, Kenya

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) are often caused by human population increase, high livestock and wildlife population densities and changing land use and climate. These conflicts are typically most intense in human-dominated systems where people, livestock and wildlife share the same landscapes and during severe droughts. Consequently, HWC are common in developing countries where wildlife still roam outside protected areas, such as in parts of Africa. We analyze how HWC vary across multiple wildlife species, seasons, years, and regions to quantify their extent, causes and consequences using data collected by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) in Narok County of Kenya during 2001–2017. Wildlife species contributed differentially to HWC such that only six species plus non-human primates contributed 90% of all the conflict incidents (  = 13,848) in the 17-year period. Specifically, the elephant (46.2%), buffalo (10.6%), Burchell's zebra (7.6%), leopard (7.3%), spotted hyena (5.8%) and lion (3.3%), collectively contributed 80.8%, whereas non-human primates contributed 11.7% of all the conflicts. The three most common conflict types were crop raiding (50.0%), attacks on humans (27.3%) and livestock depredation (17.6%). Crop raiding was most acute where cereals (wheat and maize) are grown on large scales. Carnivores were more likely to attack livestock species with body sizes comparable to their own. Thus, the leopard (44.0%,  = 3,368) and spotted hyena (37.9%,  = 2,903) killed most sheep and goats whereas the lion (63.1%,  = 531) and spotted hyenas (14.5%,  = 122) killed most cattle. HWC showed evident seasonal and inter-annual fluctuations, reflecting underlying rainfall variation. Accordingly, HWC were highest in 2008–2009 when rainfall was lowest in Narok County. Similarly, crop raiding peaked in the late wet season when crops mature whereas livestock depredation was higher in the wet season when natural prey density is lowest. Land conversion to agriculture and increase in human and livestock numbers were all positively associated with increase in HWC. Effective strategies for reducing HWC should be multi-faceted and integrate variation in the intensity and type of HWC between species, regions, seasons and years. Such strategies should discourage habitat conversion but encourage regulating livestock density. Further, they should promote land use zoning to minimize contacts between people, livestock and wildlife; effective livestock herding methods and predator-proof livestock corrals to minimize livestock depredation and fencing farms at greater risk of crop destruction

Human-wildlife conflicts and their correlates in Narok County, Kenya

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) are often caused by human population increase, high livestock and wildlife population densities and changing land use and climate. These conflicts are typically most intense in human-dominated systems where people, livestock and wildlife share the same landscapes and during severe droughts. Consequently, HWC are common in developing countries where wildlife still roam outside protected areas, such as in parts of Africa. We analyze how HWC vary across multiple wildlife species, seasons, years, and regions to quantify their extent, causes and consequences using data collected by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) in Narok County of Kenya during 2001–2017. Wildlife species contributed differentially to HWC such that only six species plus non-human primates contributed 90% of all the conflict incidents (n  = 13,848) in the 17-year period. Specifically, the elephant (46.2%), buffalo (10.6%), Burchell's zebra (7.6%), leopard (7.3%), spotted hyena (5.8%) and lion (3.3%), collectively contributed 80.8%, whereas non-human primates contributed 11.7% of all the conflicts. The three most common conflict types were crop raiding (50.0%), attacks on humans (27.3%) and livestock depredation (17.6%). Crop raiding was most acute where cereals (wheat and maize) are grown on large scales. Carnivores were more likely to attack livestock species with body sizes comparable to their own. Thus, the leopard (44.0%, n  = 3,368) and spotted hyena (37.9%, n  = 2,903) killed most sheep and goats whereas the lion (63.1%, n  = 531) and spotted hyenas (14.5%, n  = 122) killed most cattle. HWC showed evident seasonal and inter-annual fluctuations, reflecting underlying rainfall variation. Accordingly, HWC were highest in 2008–2009 when rainfall was lowest in Narok County. Similarly, crop raiding peaked in the late wet season when crops mature whereas livestock depredation was higher in the wet season when natural prey density is lowest. Land conversion to agriculture and increase in human and livestock numbers were all positively associated with increase in HWC. Effective strategies for reducing HWC should be multi-faceted and integrate variation in the intensity and type of HWC between species, regions, seasons and years. Such strategies should discourage habitat conversion but encourage regulating livestock density. Further, they should promote land use zoning to minimize contacts between people, livestock and wildlife; effective livestock herding methods and predator-proof livestock corrals to minimize livestock depredation and fencing farms at greater risk of crop destruction. Keywords: Human-wildlife conflicts, Land use change, Climate change, Human population growth, Livestock density, Wildlife densit