Development of Democratic Institutions in Athens

Pregled povijesti atenskog ustava je zapravo put od nastanka monarhije do razvoja demokracije. Prvo državno uređenje koje je antička Atena imala bilo je monarhijsko. Postojale su dinastije čiji su nasljedni kraljevi vladali. Vremenom kraljevska dužnost postaje izborna, a pojavom arhonta i polemarha gubi političku moć. Početkom 8. st. pr. Kr. monarhiju zamjenjuje vladavina aristokracije. Arhonat i areopaško vijeće su važne institucije tog razdoblja koje je obilježila borba među aristokratskim plemstvom. U Ateni nije bilo pisanih zakona do 621. g. pr. Kr. jer je do tada vladalo običajno pravo. Pisanje prvih zakona u Ateni koji nisu sačuvani u cijelosti, pripisuje se aristokratu Drakonu, a bili su na lošem glasu zbog navodno nemilosrdnih propisa. Tijekom 6. st. pr. Kr. reforme aristokrata Solona i vladavina tiranina Pizistrata su oslabile utjecaj aristokracije i tako otvorile prostor za veće institucionalne promjene u budućnosti. Među Solonovim reformama je bilo stvaranje novog vijeća uz postojanje starog areopaškog vijeća. Građani su se mogli žaliti na postupanje državnih službenika sudu, pa su bili zaštićeni od samovolje vladajućih, što prije nije bio slučaj. Tiranin Pizistrat nije ukidao Solonove propise, a njegova vladavina je imala pozitivnu ulogu u suzbijanju moći aristokrata. Klisten je čovjek čija je uloga u političkoj povijesti Atene nemjerljiva. Napravio je opsežnu reformu ustava koja se tiče upravljačkog, vojnog i pravosudnog sustava. Pripisuje mu se uvođenje ostracizma, postupka koji je trebao zaštiti ustav od ugroze tiranije. Sljedeće stoljeće je bilo doba procvata najveće antičke demokracije. Prvo je Efijalt dokrajčio posljednje tračke aristokratske moći koji izviru iz ovlasti areopaškog vijeća. Potom je njegov suradnik Periklo nastavio s radom zbog kojega se njegovo ime povezuje sa demokracijom i zlatnim dobom Atene. Razvijena je funkcionalna vladavina naroda, a tako se naziva jer su svi imovinski razredi imali svoj udio u političkom životu. Narodna skupština je najvažnija institucija ovog vremena. No, ipak u plodovima demokracije su mogli uživati samo punopravni građani. Atensko državno uređenje doživljava turbulencije krajem 5. st. pr. Kr., ali oligarhijska vlast se ne zadržava dugo te se ukida. Reformatori ustava antičke Atene ostat će zabilježeni u povijesti kao ljudi koji su postavili temelje političkog funkcioniranja zapadne civilizacije.History of Athenian constitution is actually a path from the establishment of monarchy to the development of democracy. First governmental organization of ancient Athens was monarchy. It had dynasties whose hereditary kings ruled. In a later stage kings were elected, and by emergence of archont and polemarch, kings had lost their political powers. By the beginning of the 8th century BC aristocracy grasped the power and monarchy was overthrown. Archonty and the Areopagus council were important institutions of the period which was marked by the contest within aristocracy. There were no written laws in Athens till 621 BC, because custom laws were in force. Writing of the first laws in Athens, which are not preserved, was attributed to aristocrat Draco, and they had bad reputation because of alleged ruthless regulations. During the 6th century BC reforms of aristocrat Solon and reign of tyrant Pisistratus weakened influence of aristocracy and opened space for greater institutional changes in the future. Among Solon's reforms was creation of a new council (boule) alongside the old Areopagus council. Citizens could complain to court about work of state officials, so they were protected from self-will of regime, which was not the case in the previous period. Tyrant Pisistratus did not abolish Solon's laws, and his reign had positive effect in suppression of aristocratic power. Cleistenes was a man of an immeasurable role in political history of Athens. He made extensive reform of the constitution concerning governmental, military and judicial systems. Introduction of ostracism was attributed to him, which was a process that was to protect constitution of threat of tyranny. Next century was the age of florescence of greatest ancient democracy. Ephialtes first finished off last traces of aristocratic power that sprung from authorities of the Areopagus council. Than his associate Pericles continued the work, which was the reason why his name is connected with democracy and golden age of Athens. Functional rule of people was developed, and it is called like that because all property classes could participate in political life. Assembly (ekklesia) was the most important institution of the period. But, only the full-fledged citizens could enjoy fruits of democracy. Athenian constitution went through a turbulent period by the end of 5th century BC, but in the end the oligarhic regime was abolished. Reformators of the ancient Athenian constitution will be recorded as people who built foundations of political functioning of the Western civilization

Development of Democratic Institutions in Athens

Pregled povijesti atenskog ustava je zapravo put od nastanka monarhije do razvoja demokracije. Prvo državno uređenje koje je antička Atena imala bilo je monarhijsko. Postojale su dinastije čiji su nasljedni kraljevi vladali. Vremenom kraljevska dužnost postaje izborna, a pojavom arhonta i polemarha gubi političku moć. Početkom 8. st. pr. Kr. monarhiju zamjenjuje vladavina aristokracije. Arhonat i areopaško vijeće su važne institucije tog razdoblja koje je obilježila borba među aristokratskim plemstvom. U Ateni nije bilo pisanih zakona do 621. g. pr. Kr. jer je do tada vladalo običajno pravo. Pisanje prvih zakona u Ateni koji nisu sačuvani u cijelosti, pripisuje se aristokratu Drakonu, a bili su na lošem glasu zbog navodno nemilosrdnih propisa. Tijekom 6. st. pr. Kr. reforme aristokrata Solona i vladavina tiranina Pizistrata su oslabile utjecaj aristokracije i tako otvorile prostor za veće institucionalne promjene u budućnosti. Među Solonovim reformama je bilo stvaranje novog vijeća uz postojanje starog areopaškog vijeća. Građani su se mogli žaliti na postupanje državnih službenika sudu, pa su bili zaštićeni od samovolje vladajućih, što prije nije bio slučaj. Tiranin Pizistrat nije ukidao Solonove propise, a njegova vladavina je imala pozitivnu ulogu u suzbijanju moći aristokrata. Klisten je čovjek čija je uloga u političkoj povijesti Atene nemjerljiva. Napravio je opsežnu reformu ustava koja se tiče upravljačkog, vojnog i pravosudnog sustava. Pripisuje mu se uvođenje ostracizma, postupka koji je trebao zaštiti ustav od ugroze tiranije. Sljedeće stoljeće je bilo doba procvata najveće antičke demokracije. Prvo je Efijalt dokrajčio posljednje tračke aristokratske moći koji izviru iz ovlasti areopaškog vijeća. Potom je njegov suradnik Periklo nastavio s radom zbog kojega se njegovo ime povezuje sa demokracijom i zlatnim dobom Atene. Razvijena je funkcionalna vladavina naroda, a tako se naziva jer su svi imovinski razredi imali svoj udio u političkom životu. Narodna skupština je najvažnija institucija ovog vremena. No, ipak u plodovima demokracije su mogli uživati samo punopravni građani. Atensko državno uređenje doživljava turbulencije krajem 5. st. pr. Kr., ali oligarhijska vlast se ne zadržava dugo te se ukida. Reformatori ustava antičke Atene ostat će zabilježeni u povijesti kao ljudi koji su postavili temelje političkog funkcioniranja zapadne civilizacije.History of Athenian constitution is actually a path from the establishment of monarchy to the development of democracy. First governmental organization of ancient Athens was monarchy. It had dynasties whose hereditary kings ruled. In a later stage kings were elected, and by emergence of archont and polemarch, kings had lost their political powers. By the beginning of the 8th century BC aristocracy grasped the power and monarchy was overthrown. Archonty and the Areopagus council were important institutions of the period which was marked by the contest within aristocracy. There were no written laws in Athens till 621 BC, because custom laws were in force. Writing of the first laws in Athens, which are not preserved, was attributed to aristocrat Draco, and they had bad reputation because of alleged ruthless regulations. During the 6th century BC reforms of aristocrat Solon and reign of tyrant Pisistratus weakened influence of aristocracy and opened space for greater institutional changes in the future. Among Solon's reforms was creation of a new council (boule) alongside the old Areopagus council. Citizens could complain to court about work of state officials, so they were protected from self-will of regime, which was not the case in the previous period. Tyrant Pisistratus did not abolish Solon's laws, and his reign had positive effect in suppression of aristocratic power. Cleistenes was a man of an immeasurable role in political history of Athens. He made extensive reform of the constitution concerning governmental, military and judicial systems. Introduction of ostracism was attributed to him, which was a process that was to protect constitution of threat of tyranny. Next century was the age of florescence of greatest ancient democracy. Ephialtes first finished off last traces of aristocratic power that sprung from authorities of the Areopagus council. Than his associate Pericles continued the work, which was the reason why his name is connected with democracy and golden age of Athens. Functional rule of people was developed, and it is called like that because all property classes could participate in political life. Assembly (ekklesia) was the most important institution of the period. But, only the full-fledged citizens could enjoy fruits of democracy. Athenian constitution went through a turbulent period by the end of 5th century BC, but in the end the oligarhic regime was abolished. Reformators of the ancient Athenian constitution will be recorded as people who built foundations of political functioning of the Western civilization

Foundation and organization of the Roman province of Hispania

Nedugo nakon pobjede u Drugom punskom ratu Rimljani su osnovali dvije provincije na Iberskom poluotoku: Citerior i Ulterior, a kad je cijeli poluotok postao rimski pod carem Augustom, provincija Ulterior podijeljena je na provincije Betiku i Luzitaniju. Etnička slika na Iberskom poluotoku prije rimskog osvajanja bila je raznolika zbog prisutnosti raznih naroda: Ibera, Feničana, Kartažana, Keltibera, Kelta i Grka. Rimljani su asimilirali pokorene narode uz suradnju domorodačke elite koja je pristala sudjelovati u rimskom političkom sustavu i postala dio društvenog tkiva, a romanizacija se među domorodačkim stanovništvom širila iz gradova. Dobivanjem latinskog ili rimskog građanskog prava pojedinci ili gradovi su integrirani u rimsko društvo. Rimljanima je trebalo oko 200 godina da zauzmu cijeli Iberski poluotok, a suočavali su se s tvrdoglavim otporom domorodačkih naroda. Najžešći ratovi bili su Virijatov i Numantinski rat, a obilježili su sredinu 2. st. pr. Kr. i trajali su od 155. do 133. g. pr. Krista. Građanski ratovi potresali su rimsku državu tijekom 1. st. pr. Kr., a Sertorijev rat je počeo i vodio se u Hispaniji. Ovi ratovi nisu uspjeli uzdrmati rimsku vlast u Hispaniji. Vojska je bila važan čimbenik u održavanju stabilnosti u Hispaniji, sastojala se od legija i pomoćnih postrojbi, a nakon osvajanja Iberskog poluotoka broj vojnika koji je služio u Hispaniji je opadao. Na čelu provincija bili su pretori ili konzuli, a provincija je bila sudski organizirana tako što je bila podijeljena na konvente. Rimska organizacija vlasti u Hispaniji održala se do 5. stoljeća.Not long after victory in the Second Punic War Romans founded two provinces on Iberian peninsula: Citerior and Ulterior, and when the whole peninsula became Roman under emperor Augustus, province Ulterior was divided on provinces Baetica and Lusitania. Iberian peninsula before the Roman conquest was multiethnic because of presence of various peoples: Iberians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Celtiberians, Celts and Greeks. Romans assimilated subdued peoples with cooperation of native elites who agreed to participate in Roman political system and became part of social fabric, and Romanization among the natives was spreading from cities. By gaining latin or roman citizenship individuals or cities became integrated into the Roman society. Romans were conquering Iberian peninsula for about 200 years, and met stubborn resistance of native peoples. The most violent wars were the Viriathus and the Numantine wars wich marked middle of a 2nd century BC and lasted from 155 to 133 BC. Civil wars shook Roman state during the 1st century BC and Sertorian war originated and was waged in Hispania. These wars didn’t threaten Roman dominance in Hispania. Army was an important factor for maintaining stability in Hispania. It comprised of legions and auxiliary units and after conquest of Iberian peninsula number of soldiers serving in Hispania was reduced. Praetors or consuls were governors of provinces, and provincial judicial organization functioned through convents. Roman government in Hispania lasted till the 5th century AD

Foundation and organization of the Roman province of Hispania

Nedugo nakon pobjede u Drugom punskom ratu Rimljani su osnovali dvije provincije na Iberskom poluotoku: Citerior i Ulterior, a kad je cijeli poluotok postao rimski pod carem Augustom, provincija Ulterior podijeljena je na provincije Betiku i Luzitaniju. Etnička slika na Iberskom poluotoku prije rimskog osvajanja bila je raznolika zbog prisutnosti raznih naroda: Ibera, Feničana, Kartažana, Keltibera, Kelta i Grka. Rimljani su asimilirali pokorene narode uz suradnju domorodačke elite koja je pristala sudjelovati u rimskom političkom sustavu i postala dio društvenog tkiva, a romanizacija se među domorodačkim stanovništvom širila iz gradova. Dobivanjem latinskog ili rimskog građanskog prava pojedinci ili gradovi su integrirani u rimsko društvo. Rimljanima je trebalo oko 200 godina da zauzmu cijeli Iberski poluotok, a suočavali su se s tvrdoglavim otporom domorodačkih naroda. Najžešći ratovi bili su Virijatov i Numantinski rat, a obilježili su sredinu 2. st. pr. Kr. i trajali su od 155. do 133. g. pr. Krista. Građanski ratovi potresali su rimsku državu tijekom 1. st. pr. Kr., a Sertorijev rat je počeo i vodio se u Hispaniji. Ovi ratovi nisu uspjeli uzdrmati rimsku vlast u Hispaniji. Vojska je bila važan čimbenik u održavanju stabilnosti u Hispaniji, sastojala se od legija i pomoćnih postrojbi, a nakon osvajanja Iberskog poluotoka broj vojnika koji je služio u Hispaniji je opadao. Na čelu provincija bili su pretori ili konzuli, a provincija je bila sudski organizirana tako što je bila podijeljena na konvente. Rimska organizacija vlasti u Hispaniji održala se do 5. stoljeća.Not long after victory in the Second Punic War Romans founded two provinces on Iberian peninsula: Citerior and Ulterior, and when the whole peninsula became Roman under emperor Augustus, province Ulterior was divided on provinces Baetica and Lusitania. Iberian peninsula before the Roman conquest was multiethnic because of presence of various peoples: Iberians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Celtiberians, Celts and Greeks. Romans assimilated subdued peoples with cooperation of native elites who agreed to participate in Roman political system and became part of social fabric, and Romanization among the natives was spreading from cities. By gaining latin or roman citizenship individuals or cities became integrated into the Roman society. Romans were conquering Iberian peninsula for about 200 years, and met stubborn resistance of native peoples. The most violent wars were the Viriathus and the Numantine wars wich marked middle of a 2nd century BC and lasted from 155 to 133 BC. Civil wars shook Roman state during the 1st century BC and Sertorian war originated and was waged in Hispania. These wars didn’t threaten Roman dominance in Hispania. Army was an important factor for maintaining stability in Hispania. It comprised of legions and auxiliary units and after conquest of Iberian peninsula number of soldiers serving in Hispania was reduced. Praetors or consuls were governors of provinces, and provincial judicial organization functioned through convents. Roman government in Hispania lasted till the 5th century AD

Review of 5G and 6G applications for mobile wireless communication in the military environment

Introduction/purpose: This paper seeks to provide a review of the applications of the fifth (5G) and the next, the sixth (6G), generation of mobile wireless communications in the military environment. Methods: Analyzes and syntheses were used to consider various aspects, challenges, developments, and implementations of the fifth (5G) generation as well as the sixth (6G) generation mobile wireless communications for military purposes. Results: The background and the state of the art of 5G and 6G mobile wireless communications are presented. Next, 5G military impact and initiatives are described. The paper also presents future prospectives of 6G for its usage in the military. Finally, possible 6G military applications are presented. Conclusion: 5G had achieved the first deployment by 2020 and completed the first phase of its evolution in 2022. The 5G Advanced starts as a version towards the sixth generation in a way to find different solutions for implementation not only for commercial, but also for military purposes. With the platform approach to connectivity, 5G military networks contain different requirements, range of implementation options with spectral efficiency, latency, and reliability as primary performance metrics. Toward 6G, machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) methods have proposed new approaches to modeling, design, optimization, and implementation in military systems

Radiation, thermo-oxidative and storage induced changes in microstructure, crystallinity and dielectric properties of (un)oriented isotactic polypropylene

Orientation and radiation processing of polymeric materials are the main steps in certain modern technologies and have extensive applications. The properties of such treated polymers can change significantly in time and under various exploitation conditions and therefore, investigation of some specific effects of aging and storage of these systems is of great importance, although the overall degradation behavior of iPP is well known. In this work, isotactic polypropylene (iPP) samples were oriented via solid-state stretching at elevated temperature (at 100°C, up to draw ratio λ=20). This was followed by gamma irradiation in the air (up to 700 kGy) and/or thermo-oxidative (TO) aging (in oxygen, at 100°C, up to 8 days) and/or storage (at room temperature, up to 3 years). As the iPP is very sensitive to orientation and degradation, microstructures were analyzed by optical (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to monitor changes in structure and recrystallization. Considering the fact that at higher irradiation doses (>200 kGy), iPP starts to gel under the ambient conditions, gel measurements were employed to determine the yield of network formation induced by irradiation of stretched structures. Irradiation, TO degradation and storage, can induce substantial alternations of (di)electric properties which can be properly connected to the changes in microstructure and crystallinity; therefore, dielectric loss analysis was performed in a wide temperature range and polar groups that were introduced in apolar iPP by oxidation were considered as tracer groups. © 2021 Elsevier Lt