Improvements in flexibility depending on stretching duration

International Journal of Exercise Science 16(4): 83-94, 2023. To improve flexibility, stretching is most commonly used and in training interventions duration-dependent effects are hypothesized. However, there are strong limitations in used stretching protocols in most studies, particularly regarding documentation of intensity and performed procedure. Thus, aim of this study was to compare different stretching durations on flexibility in the plantar flexors and to exclude potential biases. Eighty subjects were divided into four groups performing daily stretching training of 10min (IG10), 30min (IG30) and 1h (IG60) and one control group (CG). Flexibility was measured in bended and extended knee joint. Stretching was performed with a calf muscle stretching orthosis to ensure long-lasting stretching training. Data were analysed with a two-way ANOVA for repeated measures on two variables. Two-way ANOVA showed significant effects for time (ƞ² = 0.557-0.72, p \u3c 0.001) and significant interaction effects for time x group (ƞ² = 0.39-0.47, p \u3c 0.001). Flexibility in the knee to wall stretch improved with 9.89-14.46% d = 0.97-1.49 and 6.07-16.39% with d = 0.38-1.27 when measured via the goniometer of the orthosis. All stretching times led to significant increases in flexibility in both tests. While there were no significant differences measured via the knee to wall stretch between the groups, the range of motion measurement via the goniometer of the orthosis showed significantly higher improvements in flexibility depending on stretching duration with the highest increase in both tests with 60 minutes of stretch per day

Differences in the performance tests of the fast and slow stretch and shortening cycle among professional, amateur and elite youth soccer players

The purpose of this study was to establish whether physical attributes can differentiate between professional, amateur and elite youth soccer players; such a distinction could aid in the selection process for youth soccer. Therefore, this investigation evaluated a suspected difference in the performance tests of the slow and fast stretch and the shortening cycle (squat jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ], and drop jump from varying heights [DJ]) among professional, amateur and elite youth soccer players. Cross-sectional data were collected. The results indicate that higher performance in the SJ and CMJ seem to depend on the level of player because the mean performance of the PRO was 38.7 ± 4.0 cm in the SJ and 41.2 ± 3.8 in the CMJ, which were significantly (p<0.05) different compared with all other groups. In the DJ, there were significant (p<0.05) differences between the professional players (PRO) and lower-level players as well as between the PRO and youth soccer players. The results suggest that jump performance can differentiate between elite, sub-elite, and youth soccer players and highlights the importance of appropriate conditioning for developing strength and power in youth soccer players

Using Long-Duration Static Stretch Training to Counteract Strength and Flexibility Deficits in Moderately Trained Participants

Many sports injuries result in surgery and prolonged periods of immobilization, which may lead to significant atrophy accompanied by loss of maximal strength and range of motion and, therefore, a weak-leg/strong-leg ratio (as an imbalance index ∆ ) lower than 1. Consequently, there are common rehabilitation programs that aim to enhance maximal strength, muscle thickness and flexibility; however, the literature demonstrates existing strength imbalances after weeks of rehabilitation. Since no study has previously been conducted to investigate the effects of long-duration static stretch training to treat muscular imbalances, the present research aims to determine the possibility of counteracting imbalances in maximal strength and range of motion. Thirty-nine athletic participants with significant calf muscle imbalances in maximal strength and range of motion were divided into an intervention group (one-hour daily plantar flexors static stretching of the weaker leg for six weeks) and a control group to evaluate the effects on maximal strength and range of motion with extended and bent knee joint. Results show significant increases in maximal strength (d = 0.84–1.61, p < 0.001–0.005) and range of motion (d = 0.92–1.49, p < 0.001–0.002) following six weeks of static stretching. Group * time effects ( p < 0.001–0.004, η² = 0.22–0.55) revealed ∆ changes in the intervention group from 0.87 to 1.03 for maximal strength and from 0.92 to 1.11 in range of motion. The results provide evidence for the use of six weeks of daily, one hour stretching to counteract muscular imbalances. Related research in clinical settings after surgery is suggested

Physiology of stretch-mediated hypertrophy and strength increases: A narrative review

Increasing muscle strength and cross-sectional area is of crucial importance to improve or maintain physical function in musculoskeletal rehabilitation and sports performance. Decreases in muscular performance are experienced in phases of reduced physical activity or immobilization. These decrements highlight the need for alternative, easily accessible training regimens for a sedentary population to improve rehabilitation and injury prevention routines. Commonly, muscle hypertrophy and strength increases are associated with resistance training, typically performed in a training facility. Mechanical tension, which is usually induced with resistance machines and devices, is known to be an important factor that stimulates the underlying signaling pathways to enhance protein synthesis. Findings from animal studies suggest an alternative means to induce mechanical tension to enhance protein synthesis, and therefore muscle hypertrophy by inducing high-volume stretching. Thus, this narrative review discusses mechanical tension-induced physiological adaptations and their impact on muscle hypertrophy and strength gains. Furthermore, research addressing stretch-induced hypertrophy is critically analyzed. Derived from animal research, the stretching literature exploring the impact of static stretching on morphological and functional adaptations was reviewed and critically discussed. No studies have investigated the underlying physiological mechanisms in humans yet, and thus the underlying mechanisms remain speculative and must be discussed in the light of animal research. However, studies that reported functional and morphological increases in humans commonly used stretching durations of \u3e 30 min per session of the plantar flexors, indicating the importance of high stretching volume, if the aim is to increase muscle mass and maximum strength. Therefore, the practical applicability seems limited to settings without access to resistance training (e.g., in an immobilized state at the start of rehabilitation), as resistance training seems to be more time efficient. Nevertheless, further research is needed to generate evidence in different human populations (athletes, sedentary individuals, and rehabilitation patients) and to quantify stretching intensity

Differential use of importin-α isoforms governs cell tropism and host adaptation of influenza virus

Influenza A viruses are a threat to humans due to their ability to cross species barriers, as illustrated by the 2009 H1N1v pandemic and sporadic H5N1 transmissions. Interspecies transmission requires adaptation of the viral polymerase to importin-α, a cellular protein that mediates transport into the nucleus where transcription and replication of the viral genome takes place. In this study, we analysed replication, host specificity and pathogenicity of avian and mammalian influenza viruses, in importin-α-silenced cells and importin-α-knockout mice, to understand the role of individual importin-α isoforms in adaptation. For efficient virus replication, the polymerase subunit PB2 and the nucleoprotein (NP) of avian viruses required importin-α3, whereas PB2 and NP of mammalian viruses showed importin-α7 specificity. H1N1v replication depended on both, importin-α3 and -α7, suggesting ongoing adaptation of this virus. Thus, differences in importin-α specificity are determinants of host range underlining the importance of the nuclear envelope in interspecies transmission

Mutations at positions 186 and 194 in the HA gene of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic influenza virus improve replication in cell culture and eggs

Obtaining suitable seed viruses for influenza vaccines poses a challenge for public health authorities and manufacturers. We used reverse genetics to generate vaccine seed-compatible viruses from the 2009 pandemic swine-origin influenza virus. Comparison of viruses recovered with variations in residues 186 and 194 (based on the H3 numbering system) of the viral hemagglutinin showed that these viruses differed with respect to their ability to grow in eggs and cultured cells. Thus, we have demonstrated that molecular cloning of members of a quasispecies can help in selection of seed viruses for vaccine manufacture

Krafttraining im Nachwuchsleistungssport : Effekte eines ergänzenden Krafttrainings auf Maximalkraft- und Sprungleistungen im langsamen und schnellen Dehnungs-Verkürzungs-Zyklus bei Nachwuchsfußballern

Das Anforderungsprofil des Fußballspieles zeigt, dass Maximal- und Schnellkraftleistungen einen leistungsdeterminierenden Faktor in dieser Sportart einnehmen. Krafttrainingsinterventionen im Kindes- und Jugendalter bis hin zum Erwachsenenalter führen zu Leistungsverbesserungen in Maximal- und Schnellkraftparametern. Ziel dieser Untersuchung ist es daher zu klären, ob und wie sich eine zweijährige Krafttrainingsintervention auf Maximal- und Schnellkraftleistungen jugendlicher Athleten aus dem Nachwuchsleistungssport auswirkt. An der zweijährigen Untersuchung nahmen 114 Probanden aus zwei Vereinen teil, die durch den Deutschen Fußball Bund e.V. mit dem Prädikat eines Leistungszentrums ausgezeichnet sind. Die Fußballer wurden in zwei Gruppen unterteilt. Die Fußballer wurden zusätzlich jeweils in Subgruppen nach Alter (unter 14 Jahren [U14], unter 16 Jahren [U16] und unter 18 Jahren [U18]) zugeordnet. Die eine Gruppe (KT) führte zweimal wöchentlich zusätzlich zum regulären Fußballtraining ein Krafttraining durch, die andere Gruppe (KG) absolvierte ausschließlich das reguläre Fußballtraining. Es wurde die Leistungsfähigkeit im Squat- (SJ), Countermovement- (CMJ) und Drop Jump (DJ) aus unterschiedlichen Höhen (16 bis 40 Zentimeter), sowie Maximalkraftleistungen im Einer-Wiederholungs-Maximum (1RM) der Front- und Nackenkniebeuge vor, nach einem Jahr und nach der zweijährigen Trainingsphase erfasst. Zur Kontrolle des Einflussfaktors Wachstum wurden in diesem Forschungsprojekt Querschnittsdaten im SJ, CMJ und DJ von insgesamt 426 Schülern (männlich) im Alter zwischen 12 und 19 Jahren analog zu den Fußballern erhoben. Die Schüler wurden in Altersklassen (U13 bis U19) eingeteilt. Für die Analyse der Leistungsentwicklung innerhalb einer Gruppe und die paarweisen Vergleiche zwischen zwei Gruppen wurde eine zweifaktorielle Varianzanalyse mit Messwiederholung mit den Faktoren Gruppe und Zeit durchgeführt. Im Falle signifikanter F-Werte wurde eine Posthoc-Analyse (Scheffe) durchgeführt, um die Lokalisation der signifikanten Veränderungen zu errechnen. Die Analyse der Querschnittsdaten erfolgte über die einfaktorielle Varianzanalyse. Die Posthoc-Analyse (Scheffe) zeigte statistisch signifikante Leistungsunterschiede zwischen den Altersklassen auf (paarweise Vergleiche zwischen zwei Altersstufen). Zur Ermittlung von Zusammenhängen zwischen verschiedenen Parametern wurde die Produkt-Moment-Korrelation nach Pearson berechnet. Das Signifikanzniveau wurde für alle statistischen Verfahren auf p < 0,05 festgelegt. Im Vergleich der Fußballer schnitt die Krafttrainingsgruppe nach der zweijährigen Untersuchungsdauer in den Maximalkraftleistungen der Front- und Nackenkniebeuge in allen Altersklassen signifikant besser ab. Die Ergebnisse der KG zeigen in der U18 für die Maximalleistungen bei den Kniebeugen über zwei Jahre Steigerungen im Mittel von 9,3 ± 13,1 bis 37,1 ± 21,4%, in der U16 von 48,3 ± 39,7 bis 62,1 ± 53,3% und in der U14 von 84,4 ± 26,1 bis 94 ± 39,8%. Die Leistungssteigerungen der KT in den Maximalkraftparametern übersteigen die Zunahmen der KG bei Weitem. In der U14 finden sich je nach Parameter zwischen 290,9 ± 107,7 bis 312,6 ± 118,6% Leistungssteigerung über zwei Jahre. Die U16 weist 112,4 ± 32,7 bis 121,4 ± 39,4% Leistungssteigerung auf und die U18 zwischen 104,0 ± 45,6 bis 106,0 ± 34,4% Leistungssteigerung je nach Parameter über zwei Jahre. Im Squat Jump zeigte die KT ebenfalls signifikant bessere Leistungen (U18: 26,1 ± 13,9%, U16: 29,7 ± 16,7%, U14: 30,9 ± 13,8%), als die Gruppe, die kein Krafttraining absolvierte (U18: 1,0 ± 8,7%, U16: 10,4 ± 11,8%, U14: 8,1 ± 9,9%). Ähnliche signifikante Steigerungsraten wurden beim Countermovement Jump (U18: 20,3 ± 14,0% vs. 1,2 ± 6,9%, U16: 21,2 ± 14,4% vs. 11,1 ± 10,5%, U14: 21,6 ± 14,4% vs. 9,9 ± 7,7%) zugunsten der KG ermittelt. Die U18 der KT weist im Mittel Steigerungen des Drop Jump in den jeweiligen Höhen von 6,6 ± 16,9 bis 14,8 ± 21,3% auf. Es wurden keine signifikanten Unterschiede zur KG analysiert (Steigerungen: 0,0 ± 20 bis 6,2 ± 27,0%). Die U16 der KT erreicht Steigerungen im DJ im Mittel von 35,8 ± 28,8 bis 36,9 ± 22,5%. Dies führte zu signifikanten Unterschieden gegenüber der KG, die Steigerungen von 15,1 ± 20,8 bis 22,0 ± 19,0% aufwies. Zwischen den Gruppen der U14 kam es zu signifikanten Unterschieden im Ausgangstest. Die KT der U14 wies höhere Steigerungen (29,2 ± 25,8 bis 41,3 ± 29,3%) auf als die KG (1,5 ± 18,3 bis 15,2 ± 30,8%). Die Abschätzung der Leistungsentwicklung in den Schnellkraftparametern zeigte, dass es mit dem Alter zu leistungspositiven Veränderungen kommt. Unterstellt man, dass die Differenz zwischen den Mittelwerten der Leistungsparameter der einzelnen Altersklassen der untrainierten Schüler die entwicklungsbedingte Leistungsentwicklung darstellt, finden sich die höchsten Zunahmen zwischen den Altersklassen der U13 und der U17 und die geringsten Zunahmen bei den ältesten Jugendlichen. Die Gruppenvergleiche erreichten nicht zwischen allen Altersstufen signifikantes Niveau, sondern zum Teil erst zu mindestens zwei Jahre älteren Probandengruppen. Die Zusammenhangsanalysen zeigen hohe Zusammenhänge zwischen dem SJ und CMJ und den Maximalkraftparametern. Die Zusammenhänge zwischen den Maximalkraftparametern und den Leistungen im DJ klassifizieren sich als gering bis mittel. Die Daten zeigen, dass sowohl dem Faktor körperliche Entwicklung, als auch der Sportart Fußball leistungspositive Einflüsse auf Schnellkraftleistungen zugeordnet werden können. Die Datenlage dieser Untersuchung zeigt ferner, dass ein Krafttraining einen positiven Effekt auf Leistungsparameter im Fußball hat. Eine langfristige Trainingsintervention von zwei Jahren kann zu einer deutlichen Steigerung des 1RM, des SJ, des CMJ und des DJ führen. Die Maximal- und Schnellkraft ist demnach im Jugendalter durch ein langfristig angelegtes Krafttraining sehr gut zu steigern. Demnach ist ein ergänzendes Krafttraining im Nachwuchsleistungssport der Sportart Fußball zu empfehlen

Validity of Two Consumer Multisport Activity Tracker and One Accelerometer against Polysomnography for Measuring Sleep Parameters and Vital Data in a Laboratory Setting in Sleep Patients

Two commercial multisport activity trackers (Garmin Forerunner 945 and Polar Ignite) and the accelerometer ActiGraph GT9X were evaluated in measuring vital data, sleep stages and sleep/wake patterns against polysomnography (PSG). Forty-nine adult patients with suspected sleep disorders (30 males/19 females) completed a one-night PSG sleep examination followed by a multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). Sleep parameters, time in bed (TIB), total sleep time (TST), wake after sleep onset (WASO), sleep onset latency (SOL), awake time (WASO + SOL), sleep stages (light, deep, REM sleep) and the number of sleep cycles were compared. Both commercial trackers showed high accuracy in measuring vital data (HR, HRV, SpO2, respiratory rate), r > 0.92. For TIB and TST, all three trackers showed medium to high correlation, r > 0.42. Garmin had significant overestimation of TST, with MAE of 84.63 min and MAPE of 25.32%. Polar also had an overestimation of TST, with MAE of 45.08 min and MAPE of 13.80%. ActiGraph GT9X results were inconspicuous. The trackers significantly underestimated awake times (WASO + SOL) with weak correlation, r = 0.11–0.57. The highest MAE was 50.35 min and the highest MAPE was 83.02% for WASO for Garmin and ActiGraph GT9X; Polar had the highest MAE of 21.17 min and the highest MAPE of 141.61% for SOL. Garmin showed significant deviations for sleep stages (p p = 0.000), r < 0.50. Garmin and Polar overestimated light sleep and underestimated deep sleep, Garmin significantly, with MAE up to 64.94 min and MAPE up to 116.50%. Both commercial trackers Garmin and Polar did not detect any daytime sleep at all during the MSLT test. The use of the multisport activity trackers for sleep analysis can only be recommended for general daily use and for research purposes. If precise data on sleep stages and parameters are required, their use is limited. The accuracy of the vital data measurement was adequate. Further studies are needed to evaluate their use for medical purposes, inside and outside of the sleep laboratory. The accelerometer ActiGraph GT9X showed overall suitable accuracy in detecting sleep/wake patterns

Coupling heat and electricity storage technologies for cost and self-consumption optimised residential PV prosumer systems in Germany

Coupling energy sectors within the emerging residential PV prosumer systems is necessary for an optimised use of the houseowners’ own produced electricity. But the pure availability of different energy technologies in the system is not enough. By optimising the electricity usage as well as the capacities of PV generators, storage technologies, heat pumps and battery electric vehicles, not only the best solution in a technical point of view can be achieved, the need of finding the most financially beneficial system composition for single-family houses and tenements is possible. The study provides a detailed model for average German single-family houses and tenements and results for the energy transition period until 2050 for the optimised energy systems regarding optimised PV and stationary battery capacities and different heat storage capacities. Most noticeable outcomes can be observed by using a vehicle-to-home car, where a car can mostly take over the tasks of a stationary battery and by introducing a solidarity model using this type of car in tenement systems