A Study of the Shortest-Period Planets Found With Kepler

We present the results of a survey aimed at discovering and studying transiting planets with orbital periods shorter than one day (ultra--short-period, or USP, planets), using data from the {\em Kepler} spacecraft. We computed Fourier transforms of the photometric time series for all 200,000 target stars, and detected transit signals based on the presence of regularly spaced sharp peaks in the Fourier spectrum. We present a list of 106 USP candidates, of which 18 have not previously been described in the literature. In addition, among the objects we studied, there are 26 USP candidates that had been previously reported in the literature which do not pass our various tests. All 106 of our candidates have passed several standard tests to rule out false positives due to eclipsing stellar systems. A low false positive rate is also implied by the relatively high fraction of candidates for which more than one transiting planet signal was detected. By assuming these multi-transit candidates represent coplanar multi-planet systems, we are able to infer that the USP planets are typically accompanied by other planets with periods in the range 1-50 days, in contrast with hot Jupiters which very rarely have companions in that same period range. Another clear pattern is that almost all USP planets are smaller than 2 $R_\oplus$, possibly because gas giants in very tight orbits would lose their atmospheres by photoevaporation when subject to extremely strong stellar irradiation. Based on our survey statistics, USP planets exist around approximately $(0.51\pm 0.07)\%$ of G-dwarf stars, and $(0.83\pm 0.18)\%$ of K-dwarf stars.Comment: 20 pages, 10 figures. Submitted to ApJ. This version has been reviewed by a refere

Variability in high-mass X-ray binaries

Strongly magnetized, accreting neutron stars show periodic and aperiodic variability over a wide range of time scales. By obtaining spectral and timing information on these different time scales, we can have a closer look into the physics of accretion close to the neutron star and the properties of the accreted material. One of the most prominent time scales is the strong pulsation, i.e., the rotation period of the neutron star itself. Over one rotation, our view of the accretion column and the X-ray producing region changes significantly. This allows us to sample different physical conditions within the column but at the same time requires that we have viewing-angle-resolved models to properly describe them. In wind-fed high-mass X-ray binaries, the main source of aperiodic variability is the clumpy stellar wind, which leads to changes in the accretion rate (i.e., luminosity) as well as absorption column. This variability allows us to study the behavior of the accretion column as a function of luminosity, as well as to investigate the structure and physical properties of the wind, which we can compare to winds in isolated stars.Comment: 6 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in Astronomische Nachrichten (proceedings of the XMM-Newton Workshop 2019

Radiography in high mass X-ray binaries -- Micro-structure of the stellar wind through variability of the column density

In high mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs), an accreting compact object orbits a high mass star which loses mass through a dense and inhomogeneous wind. Using the compact object as an X-ray backlight, the time variability of the absorbing column density in the wind can be exploited in order to shed light on the micro-structure of the wind and obtain unbiased stellar mass loss rates for high mass stars. We explore the impact of clumpiness on the variability of the column density with a simplified wind model. In particular, we focus on the standard deviation of the column density and the characteristic duration of enhanced absorption episodes, and compare them with analytical predictions based on the porosity length. We identified the favorable systems and orbital phases to determine the wind micro-structure. The coherence time scale of the column density is shown to be the self-crossing time of a clump in front of the compact object. We provide a recipe to get accurate measurements of the size and of the mass of the clumps, purely based on the observable time variability of the column density. The coherence time scale grants direct access to the size of the clumps while their mass can be deduced separately from the amplitude of the variability. If it is due to unaccreted passing-by clumps, the high column density variations in some HMXBs requires high mass clumps to reproduce the observed peak-to-peak amplitude and coherence time scales. These clump properties are hardly compatible with the ones derived from first principles. Alternatively, other components could contribute to the variability of the column density: larger orbital scale structures produced by a mechanism still to be identified, or a dense environment in the immediate vicinity of the accretor such as an accretion disk, an outflow or a spherical shell around the magnetosphere of the accreting neutron star

Binary-object spectral-synthesis in 3D (BOSS-3D) -- Modelling H-alpha emission in the enigmatic multiple system LB-1

Context: To quantitatively decode the information stored within an observed spectrum, detailed modelling of the physical state and accurate radiative transfer solution schemes are required. In the analysis of stellar spectra, the numerical model often needs to account for binary companions and 3D structures in the stellar envelopes. The enigmatic binary (or multiple) system LB-1 constitutes a perfect example of such a complex multi-D problem. Aims: To improve our understanding of the LB-1 system, we directly modelled the phase-dependent H-alpha line profiles of this system. To this end, we developed a multi-purpose binary-object spectral-synthesis code in 3D (BOSS-3D). Methods: BOSS-3D calculates synthetic line profiles for a given state of the circumstellar material. The standard pz-geometry commonly used for single stars is extended by defining individual coordinate systems for each involved object and by accounting for the appropriate coordinate transformations. The code is then applied to the LB-1 system, considering two main hypotheses, a binary containing a stripped star and Be star, or a B star and a black hole with a disc. Results: Comparing these two scenarios, neither model can reproduce the detailed phase-dependent shape of the H-alpha line profiles. A satisfactory match with the observations, however, is obtained by invoking a disc around the primary object in addition to the Be-star disc or the black-hole accretion disc. Conclusions: The developed code can be used to model synthetic line profiles for a wide variety of binary systems, ranging from transit spectra of planetary atmospheres, to post-asymptotic giant branch binaries including circumstellar and circumbinary discs and massive-star binaries with stellar winds and disc systems. For the LB-1 system, our modelling provides strong evidence that each object in the system contains a disc-like structure

Possible Disintegrating Short-Period Super-Mercury Orbiting KIC 12557548

We report here on the discovery of stellar occultations, observed with Kepler, that recur periodically at 15.685 hour intervals, but which vary in depth from a maximum of 1.3% to a minimum that can be less than 0.2%. The star that is apparently being occulted is KIC 12557548, a K dwarf with T_eff = 4400 K and V = 16. Because the eclipse depths are highly variable, they cannot be due solely to transits of a single planet with a fixed size. We discuss but dismiss a scenario involving a binary giant planet whose mutual orbit plane precesses, bringing one of the planets into and out of a grazing transit. We also briefly consider an eclipsing binary, that either orbits KIC 12557548 in a hierarchical triple configuration or is nearby on the sky, but we find such a scenario inadequate to reproduce the observations. We come down in favor of an explanation that involves macroscopic particles escaping the atmosphere of a slowly disintegrating planet not much larger than Mercury. The particles could take the form of micron-sized pyroxene or aluminum oxide dust grains. The planetary surface is hot enough to sublimate and create a high-Z atmosphere; this atmosphere may be loaded with dust via cloud condensation or explosive volcanism. Atmospheric gas escapes the planet via a Parker-type thermal wind, dragging dust grains with it. We infer a mass loss rate from the observations of order 1 M_E/Gyr, with a dust-to-gas ratio possibly of order unity. For our fiducial 0.1 M_E planet, the evaporation timescale may be ~0.2 Gyr. Smaller mass planets are disfavored because they evaporate still more quickly, as are larger mass planets because they have surface gravities too strong to sustain outflows with the requisite mass-loss rates. The occultation profile evinces an ingress-egress asymmetry that could reflect a comet-like dust tail trailing the planet; we present simulations of such a tail.Comment: 14 pages, 7 figures; submitted to ApJ, January 10, 2012; accepted March 21, 201

The VLT/SPHERE view of the ATOMIUM cool evolved star sample. I. Overview:Sample characterization through polarization analysis

Aims. Through the ATOMIUM project, based on an ALMA large program, we aim to present a consistent view of a sample of 17 nearby cool evolved stars (Aymptotic Giant Branch and red supergiant stars). Methods. Here we present VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL polarimetric maps obtained in the visible of 14 out of the 17 ATOMIUM sources. They were obtained contemporaneously with the ALMA high spatial resolution data. To help interpret the polarized signal, we produced synthetic maps of light scattering by dust, through 3D radiative transfer simulations with the RADMC3D code. Results. The degree of linear polarization (DoLP) observed by ZIMPOL spreads across several optical filters. We infer that it primarily probes dust located just outside of the point spread function, and in or near the plane of the sky, with a total optical depth close to unity in the line of sight, representing only a fraction of the total circumstellar dust. The maximum DoLP ranges from 0.03-0.38 depending on the source, fractions that can be reproduced by our 3D pilot models for grains composed of common dust species. The spatial structure of the DoLP shows a diverse set of shapes. Only for three sources do we note a correlation between the ALMA CO and SiO lines, which trace the gas density, and the DoLP, which traces the dust. Conclusion. The clumpiness of the DoLP and the lack of a consistent correlation between the gas and the dust location show that, in the inner circumstellar environment (CSE), dust formation occurs at very specific sites. This has potential consequences for the derived mass-loss rates and dust-to-gas ratio in the inner region of the CSE. Except for $\pi^1$~Gru and perhaps GY Aql, we do not detect interactions between the circumstellar wind and the hypothesized companions that shape the wind at larger scales. This suggests that the orbits of any other companions are tilted out of the plane of the sky.Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics. 22 pages, 15 figures, 5 table

The VLT/SPHERE view of the ATOMIUM cool evolved star sample. I. Overview: Sample characterization through polarization analysis

Aims. Through the ATOMIUM project, based on an ALMA large program, we aim to present a consistent view of a sample of 17 nearby cool evolved stars (Aymptotic Giant Branch and red supergiant stars). Methods. Here we present VLT/SPHERE-ZIMPOL polarimetric maps obtained in the visible of 14 out of the 17 ATOMIUM sources. They were obtained contemporaneously with the ALMA high spatial resolution data. To help interpret the polarized signal, we produced synthetic maps of light scattering by dust, through 3D radiative transfer simulations with the RADMC3D code. Results. The degree of linear polarization (DoLP) observed by ZIMPOL spreads across several optical filters. We infer that it primarily probes dust located just outside of the point spread function, and in or near the plane of the sky, with a total optical depth close to unity in the line of sight, representing only a fraction of the total circumstellar dust. The maximum DoLP ranges from 0.03-0.38 depending on the source, fractions that can be reproduced by our 3D pilot models for grains composed of common dust species. The spatial structure of the DoLP shows a diverse set of shapes. Only for three sources do we note a correlation between the ALMA CO and SiO lines, which trace the gas density, and the DoLP, which traces the dust. Conclusion. The clumpiness of the DoLP and the lack of a consistent correlation between the gas and the dust location show that, in the inner circumstellar environment (CSE), dust formation occurs at very specific sites. This has potential consequences for the derived mass-loss rates and dust-to-gas ratio in the inner region of the CSE. Except for $\pi^1$~Gru and perhaps GY Aql, we do not detect interactions between the circumstellar wind and the hypothesized companions that shape the wind at larger scales. This suggests that the orbits of any other companions are tilted out of the plane of the sky.Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics. 22 pages, 15 figures, 5 table

(Sub)stellar companions shape the winds of evolved stars

Binary interactions dominate the evolution of massive stars, but their role is less clear for low- and intermediate-mass stars. The evolution of a spherical wind from an asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star into a nonspherical planetary nebula (PN) could be due to binary interactions. We observed a sample of AGB stars with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and found that their winds exhibit distinct nonspherical geometries with morphological similarities to planetary nebulae (PNe). We infer that the same physics shapes both AGB winds and PNe; additionally, the morphology and AGB mass-loss rate are correlated. These characteristics can be explained by binary interaction. We propose an evolutionary scenario for AGB morphologies that is consistent with observed phenomena in AGB stars and PNe

(Sub)stellar companions shape the winds of evolved stars

Binary interactions dominate the evolution of massive stars, but their role is less clear for low- and intermediate-mass stars. The evolution of a spherical wind from an asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star into a nonspherical planetary nebula (PN) could be due to binary interactions. We observed a sample of AGB stars with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and found that their winds exhibit distinct nonspherical geometries with morphological similarities to planetary nebulae (PNe). We infer that the same physics shapes both AGB winds and PNe; additionally, the morphology and AGB mass-loss rate are correlated. These characteristics can be explained by binary interaction. We propose an evolutionary scenario for AGB morphologies that is consistent with observed phenomena in AGB stars and PNe