The conquest of the dark spaces: An experimental approach to lighting systems in Paleolithic caves

Artificial lighting was a crucial physical resource for expanding complex social and economic behavior in Paleolithic groups. Furthermore, the control of fire allowed the development of the first symbolic behavior in deep caves, around 176 ky BP. These activities would increase during the Upper Paleolithic, when lighting residues proliferated at these sites. The physical peculiarities of Paleolithic lighting resources are very poorly understood, although this is a key aspect for the study of human activity within caves and other dark contexts. In this work, we characterize the main Paleolithic lighting systems (e.g., wooden torches, portable fat lamps, and fireplaces) through empirical observations and experimental archeology in an endokarstic context. Furthermore, each lighting system's characteristic combustion residues were identified to achieve a better identification for the archaeological record. The experiments are based on an exhaustive review of archaeological information about this topic. Besides, we apply the estimated luminous data of a Paleolithic cave with Paleolithic art (Atxurra in northern Spain) in 3D through GIS technology to delve into the archeologic implications of illumination in Paleolithic underground activities.This paper has been funded by the research projects “Before art: social investment in symbolic expressions during the Upper Paleolithic in the Iberian Peninsula” (PID2019-107262 GBI00), PI: Diego Garate, and “Learning and development of artistic abilities in Anatomically Modern Humans; a multidisciplinary approach (ApArt)" HAR2017-87739-P, PI: Olivia Rivero, both funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities (Spain). Besides, the University of Cordoba (Jose´ Luis Sanchidria´n, Economic Unit in Prehistory) has collaborated in the publication of this paper in open access. I.I.’s Ph.D. research is funded by a grant for the training of research personnel (PIF 2019) at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). Lastly, this paper publishes a part of M.M.A.’s thesis. This PhD was financed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sport of Spain (FPU fellowship 2014-2018)

Unravelling the skills and motivations of Magdalenian artists in the depths of Atxurra Cave (Northern Spain)

Atxurra cave has a decorated assemblage composed of more than a hundred engraved animal depictions. All of them are located in deep parts of the cave and most of them are hidden in raised areas, away from the main path. The main sector is the “Ledge of the Horses”, located at 330 m from the entrance of the cave. It is a space of 12 m long and 1.5 m wide, elevated 4 m above the cave floor. This area includes almost fifty engraved and painted animals accompanied by a dozen flint tools, three fireplaces, and around one hundred charcoal fragments from torches. This extraordinary archaeological record allows us to value the complexity of the artistic production inside the caves during the Upper Palaeolithic. Our study has confirmed that there is planning prior to artistic production, both in terms of the iconographic aspects (themes, techniques, formats), its location (visibility, capacity), and the lighting systems. Furthermore, the data indicates the panel was decorated to be seen by third parties from different positions and was expressly illuminated for this purpose. This evidence supports the role of rock art as a visual communication system in Upper Palaeolithic societies.The authors wish to thank the Cultural Heritage Service of the Diputación Foral de Bizkaia for funding the 4-year multidisciplinary study project (2016–2020) “Study of rock art in Atxurra cave” directed by Dr Diego Garate. The present study has been carried out within the framework of the research project "Before art: social investment in symbolic expressions during the Upper Palaeolithic in the Iberian Peninsula” (PID2019-107262GB-I00), PI: Diego Garate, funded by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (Spain), the research projet “Scientific virtual reality for the study and dissemination of the scenarios of artistic creation in Palaeolithic caves (RealCaveART)” (PDC2022-133124-I00), PI: Diego Garate, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the European Union Next Generation EU/PRTR, and the research project “Creation and perception in Anatomically Modern Humans: analysis of the biological, cognitive and social skills linked to the production of Paleolithic art (ArtMindHuman)” (PID2021-125166OB-I00), PI: Olivia Rivero, funded by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (Spain). I. Intxaurbe’s PhD research is funded by a grant for the training of research personnel (PIF 2019) at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). M.A. Median-Alcaide developpes lighting system analyses inside the framework of her “A-Light” project of the HORIZON-MSCA-2021-PF-01-01 (101066376)

A new decorated gallery at the Alkerdi 2 cave (Urdazubi/Urdax)

En el marco del proyecto de «Caracterización del macizo y sistema kárstico de Alkerdi, de la cueva de Alkerdi y de su entorno de protección», se continúa con el estudio científico de la cavidad de Alkerdi 2. Las labores de prospección espeleológica del desarrollo kárstico de la cavidad han permitido localizar una galería decorada inédita en 2020. En un primer estudio se ha identificado en su interior un conjunto de pinturas y de grabados compuestos principalmente por representaciones animales de bisontes, caballos y uros, a los que se unen un panel decorado con vulvas y dos conjuntos de trazos pareados en rojo.Within the framework of the characterization project of the karstic massif of Alkerdi and its system, the cave of Alkerdi and its protected environment, we have continued with the scientific study of the cave of Alkerdi 2. The speleological prospecting work of the karstic development of the cave has allowed locating an unknown decorated gallery in 2020. In a first study, a set of paintings and engravings has been detected inside, composed mainly of animal representations of bison, horses and aurochs, to which a panel decorated with vulvas and two sets of paired red traits are adde

Palaeolithic rock art in Alkerdi 2 cave (Urdazubi/Urdax, Navarra)

En el marco del proyecto de «Caracterización del macizo y sistema kárstico de Alkerdi,de la cueva de Alkerdi y de su entorno de protección», se procede a la exploración de la cavidad de Alkerdi 2. Las labores coordinadas han permitido identificar un conjunto de arte parietal asociado a evidencias arqueológicas en superficie. El estilo de las grafías animales grabadas apunta hacia una atribución Gravetiense para la presencia humana. La datación por radiocarbono de uno de los motivos parietales y de un carbón procedente del contexto arqueológico, lo corroboran. Se trata así de la segunda cavidad decorada durante el Paleolítico en Navarra y la muestra artística más antigua de la Comunidad Foral.Within the framework of the characterization project of the massif and karst system of Alkerdi, the Alkerdi cave and its protective environment, the Alkerdi 2 cavity was explored. The coordinated work has made it possible to identify a set of parietal art associated with archaeological evidence on the surface. The style of the engraved animal points towards a Gravettian attribution for human presence. Radiocarbon dating of one of the parietal motifs and a charcoal from the archaeological context corroborate this idea. This is the second cavity decorated during the Paleolithic in Navarre and the oldest artistic remain in the Autonomous Community

La ausencia de evidencias no es evidencia de ausencias: la transcendencia de la materia vegetal en las sociedades prehistóricas (Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence: the transcendence of vegetation in prehistoric societies )

In this text, we explain the relationship between humans and vegetation throughout Prehistory, how plants have influenced our life and when and how we have interfered with their natural evolution. In this sense, we remember Lydia's passion for this subject, paying her an emotional tribute

35,000 years of recurrent visits inside Nerja cave (Andalusia, Spain) based on analyses of charcoals and soot micro‑layers

International audienceHow many occupation phases were there in Nerja Cave, over how many thousands of years was it visited and what was the frequency of occupation? To answer these questions, we analyzed the combustion residues related to lighting (charcoal found on the ground and soot micro-layers trapped in speleothems) found in the interior galleries of Nerja cave in an interdisciplinary study. In our presentation, we will present and discuss the absolute dating of the prehistoric underground activity and the identification of different phases of visits to the deep parts of the cave. The charcoal analysis includes anthracological analysis and SEM-EDX. Soot analysis includes light microscopy, Raman micro-spectroscopy and TEM-EDX, as well as micro-counting of soot micro-layers. 14C dating of 53 charcoals identified 12 phases of prehistoric visits to the cave between 41,218 and 3299 cal. BP, extending the origin of human occupation of this iconic cave by 10,000 years. Interdisciplinary analysis of soot micro-layers allowed us to zoom in with high precision on the last three phases identified by Bayesian analysis (8003-2998 cal. BP.), demonstrating that these phases contain at least 64 distinct incursions, with an average of one visit every 35 years for the Neolithic period. In addition to the temporal aspect of our study, the spatial analysis showed that not all areas of the cave were used at the same periods, shedding light on differential uses of the space according to phases, and the repetition of visits to specific areas of the cave's lower galleries. The investigations on the traces of combustion in Nerja Cave have thus allowed us to diachronically approach the anthropogenic use of fire for light, but also to reveal behavioral dynamics regarding the temporality and spatiality of visits

35,000 years of recurrent visits inside Nerja cave (Andalusia, Spain) based on analyses of charcoals and soot micro‑layers

International audienceHow many occupation phases were there in Nerja Cave, over how many thousands of years was it visited and what was the frequency of occupation? To answer these questions, we analyzed the combustion residues related to lighting (charcoal found on the ground and soot micro-layers trapped in speleothems) found in the interior galleries of Nerja cave in an interdisciplinary study. In our presentation, we will present and discuss the absolute dating of the prehistoric underground activity and the identification of different phases of visits to the deep parts of the cave. The charcoal analysis includes anthracological analysis and SEM-EDX. Soot analysis includes light microscopy, Raman micro-spectroscopy and TEM-EDX, as well as micro-counting of soot micro-layers. 14C dating of 53 charcoals identified 12 phases of prehistoric visits to the cave between 41,218 and 3299 cal. BP, extending the origin of human occupation of this iconic cave by 10,000 years. Interdisciplinary analysis of soot micro-layers allowed us to zoom in with high precision on the last three phases identified by Bayesian analysis (8003-2998 cal. BP.), demonstrating that these phases contain at least 64 distinct incursions, with an average of one visit every 35 years for the Neolithic period. In addition to the temporal aspect of our study, the spatial analysis showed that not all areas of the cave were used at the same periods, shedding light on differential uses of the space according to phases, and the repetition of visits to specific areas of the cave's lower galleries. The investigations on the traces of combustion in Nerja Cave have thus allowed us to diachronically approach the anthropogenic use of fire for light, but also to reveal behavioral dynamics regarding the temporality and spatiality of visits

35,000 years of recurrent visits inside Nerja cave (Andalusia, Spain) based on analyses of charcoals and soot micro‑layers

International audienceHow many occupation phases were there in Nerja Cave, over how many thousands of years was it visited and what was the frequency of occupation? To answer these questions, we analyzed the combustion residues related to lighting (charcoal found on the ground and soot micro-layers trapped in speleothems) found in the interior galleries of Nerja cave in an interdisciplinary study. In our presentation, we will present and discuss the absolute dating of the prehistoric underground activity and the identification of different phases of visits to the deep parts of the cave. The charcoal analysis includes anthracological analysis and SEM-EDX. Soot analysis includes light microscopy, Raman micro-spectroscopy and TEM-EDX, as well as micro-counting of soot micro-layers. 14C dating of 53 charcoals identified 12 phases of prehistoric visits to the cave between 41,218 and 3299 cal. BP, extending the origin of human occupation of this iconic cave by 10,000 years. Interdisciplinary analysis of soot micro-layers allowed us to zoom in with high precision on the last three phases identified by Bayesian analysis (8003-2998 cal. BP.), demonstrating that these phases contain at least 64 distinct incursions, with an average of one visit every 35 years for the Neolithic period. In addition to the temporal aspect of our study, the spatial analysis showed that not all areas of the cave were used at the same periods, shedding light on differential uses of the space according to phases, and the repetition of visits to specific areas of the cave's lower galleries. The investigations on the traces of combustion in Nerja Cave have thus allowed us to diachronically approach the anthropogenic use of fire for light, but also to reveal behavioral dynamics regarding the temporality and spatiality of visits

35,000 years of recurrent visits inside Nerja cave (Andalusia, Spain) based on analyses of charcoals and soot micro‑layers

International audienceHow many occupation phases were there in Nerja Cave, over how many thousands of years was it visited and what was the frequency of occupation? To answer these questions, we analyzed the combustion residues related to lighting (charcoal found on the ground and soot micro-layers trapped in speleothems) found in the interior galleries of Nerja cave in an interdisciplinary study. In our presentation, we will present and discuss the absolute dating of the prehistoric underground activity and the identification of different phases of visits to the deep parts of the cave. The charcoal analysis includes anthracological analysis and SEM-EDX. Soot analysis includes light microscopy, Raman micro-spectroscopy and TEM-EDX, as well as micro-counting of soot micro-layers. 14C dating of 53 charcoals identified 12 phases of prehistoric visits to the cave between 41,218 and 3299 cal. BP, extending the origin of human occupation of this iconic cave by 10,000 years. Interdisciplinary analysis of soot micro-layers allowed us to zoom in with high precision on the last three phases identified by Bayesian analysis (8003-2998 cal. BP.), demonstrating that these phases contain at least 64 distinct incursions, with an average of one visit every 35 years for the Neolithic period. In addition to the temporal aspect of our study, the spatial analysis showed that not all areas of the cave were used at the same periods, shedding light on differential uses of the space according to phases, and the repetition of visits to specific areas of the cave's lower galleries. The investigations on the traces of combustion in Nerja Cave have thus allowed us to diachronically approach the anthropogenic use of fire for light, but also to reveal behavioral dynamics regarding the temporality and spatiality of visits