The Future Opportunities and Challenges for one of the World‘s Largest Dairy Export Firms: Fonterra in New Zealand

Fonterra is the world’s largest exporter of dairy products and the fourth largest dairy company in the world responsible for about a third of international dairy trade (Rabobank, 2002). Based in New Zealand, Fonterra operates in 140 countries through its two main subsidiaries NZMP1 and New Zealand Milk.2 As a co-operative, Fonterra is owned by its 10,400 supplier/shareholders who can elect directors and shareholder councillors to govern and monitor the company. Since its formation in 2001, Fonterra has continued an aggressive programme of acquisitions, joint ventures and worldwide alliances whilst simultaneously undertaking an innovative capital restructuring process. Funding this aggressive growth strategy as well as maintaining and improving various debt to equity ratios has not met with all shareholders’ approval. Fonterra’s domestic milk supply market share has fallen from 95% in 2001 to around 87% in 2014 and as more overseas competition move into the domestic market this percentage is expected to drop even further (Patterson, 2014). As New Zealand Milk has continued to grow in real terms, Fonterra has been shielded from this drop in percentage. But the quantity of milk that New Zealand produces cannot grow forever and this is expected to plateau in the near future

New developments in the immunodiagnosis of brucellosis in livestock and wildlife

Summary Although relatively effective diagnostic tests for brucellosis have been in existence for more than 100 years, it remains a serious, embedded and also a re-emerging disease in many parts of the globe. There are many factors besides suboptimal diagnosis that impede the complete and sustained eradication of animal brucellosis. In this review a case for the continued improvement of diagnostic methods is made through identifying existing shortcomings and considering what impact these have upon control and eradication. The focus is on developments in immunodiagnostics as these seem more likely to yield the pragmatic solutions needed. Moreover, developments in DNA detection methods have been neatly and recently reviewed elsewhere. This article reviews issues such as test cost, mobility, sensitivity and specifi city. Advances in low-cost materials, high-throughput testing, assay multiplexing and the quantifi cation of pen-side tests are described and their relevance to disease control considered. Poor test specifi city when resolving positive serology, due to infection with cross-reactive bacteria and vaccination with smooth Brucella strains, is also an impediment to effi cient disease eradication. A case for the development of novel discrete epitope antigens to address this is presented alongside in silico methods of selection and tools that enable increased analytical sensitivity that may be required to detect relatively low, but potentially signifi cant, analytes. References have been drawn from the study of brucellosis wherever possible. However, in some cases new technological developments worthy of discussion have been included via the use of pertinent alternative examples. In conclusion, despite developments and innovations the classical serological tests seem under no imminent danger of mass extinction but there is potential for signifi cant improvement and supplementation

Effective, accountable and inclusive institutions? An analysis of the Chevron v. Ecuador (II) investment arbitration and the Lago Agrio environmental justice movement

The international investment agreement regime, one of the more obscure global institutions, has a significant impact upon how states, local governments and communities develop. Many investment agreements include investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) mechanisms, which seek to protect investors from unjust expropriation by host states. Yet, the implications of such a mechanism for fulfilling the vision of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have never been studied. This thesis examines the ISDS mechanism by conducting a case study of the Chevron v. Ecuador (II) [CvE2] investment arbitration. The thesis analyses case documents such as hearing transcripts, decisions and submissions to identify the discourses at work within the arbitration; determine the implications of such discourses for processual developments; and explore how such processes influence the space afforded to those nongovernmental organisations and environmental justice groups affected by the arbitration. The research utilises an analytical framework informed by critical development theory and environmental justice theory, to demonstrate that the CvE2 arbitration is dominated by an exclusive discourse that prioritises a strict adherence to international investment law, to the exclusion of other principles such as those of international human rights law and environmental law. The dominance of such a discourse reduces the legitimacy of the institution and its rulings for many key stakeholders. The findings also reveal that marginalised stakeholders, such as environmental organisations representing indigenous communities, were refused access to the arbitrations though they were materially affected by the claims, and additionally, were denied consideration - whereby the material impact of the ruling upon the stakeholder group was deemed irrelevant to the proceedings. The findings provide evidence that ISDS, in its current form, is incompatible with the United Nation’s goal for ‘effective, accountable and inclusive institutions’ (United Nations Development Programme, 2016, p. 1). This thesis contributes to the scholarship on environmental justice and environmental policy through its analysis of the implications of arbitration mechanisms embedded in international investment regimes for environmental justice claims and, more broadly, the goal of sustainable development. The thesis highlights the need for further research into investor-state investment arbitrations and provides evidence that significant reform is necessary in order for the institution to be reconciled with the SDGs

Exclusion of women in the church governance structures : The Case of the Baptist Church of Southern Africa in Cradock Region

In every community there are women. However, they are often marginalized because they are perceived as being unable to make a meaningful contribution to various economic endeavours or society in general. Sometimes they are shunned by their own families, while even church communities have been known to treat women in thoughtless ways. As a result, their spiritual potential cannot be effectively tapped. The research has explored many experiences of women in the mainstream Baptist Churches of Southern Africa in Cradock Region in the Eastern Cape. The study delves into the barriers that prevent the full inclusion of women in church life and what churches are and/or should be doing to remove such barriers so that women can embrace all that a church has to offer and progress on their spiritual journey. The study also looks at the importance of systematic theology in the church and how it should be directed at enabling women to exercise their spiritual gifts. The study applied the theoretical framework that discussed what is faced by women in the church, providing in-depth literature and Biblical review, and examining selected individuals who contributed to the study on what is faced by women daily in their spiritual growth. It provided important insights into how involved the participants are in church activities and whether they face subtle or more overt discrimination. A few strategies were also considered aimed at improving conditions for excluded women in the church, not only through better physical access but also through greater acceptance by the church leadership and the membership as a whole. The findings from the study will not only help the churches that were the focus of the fieldwork to help their women members embrace church life more fully and exercise their spiritual gifts, but they will also provide important insights for the broader Christian church towards the potential of inclusive community that will contribute richly to the spiritual enhancement of their church, family and community. For the survey work, the researcher adopted a qualitative approach. The participants' sample consisted of adults with a range of women and men of the church. Supplementary input was solicited from women and men who understand the challenges presented by both parties – particularly when a lack of familiarity with certain physical conditions leads to an unthinking, and sometimes uncaring, attitude. The data has been collected using informal and semi-structured interviews and observation. Being able to exercise choice and having control over their lives and a sense of independence were singled out as being of great importance to the women participants, as these factors contributed to their well-being and satisfaction with life. Most of the participants reported that they were not warmly embraced by their churches, because of their gender, and they were able to lead a fulfilling life of worship. However, more could be done to enhance their participation in church affairs and to become role models for other church communities that are not as accommodating through a lack of knowledge, training and resources. The research only focused on the rural, white, Coloured, Indian and African residential areas in Cradock in the Eastern Cape. Therefore, the study will only focus on the Baptist Church of Southern Africa in Cradock Region and should ideally not be generalized to areas other than those selected for this study. There is much scope for more detailed research to be conducted on disability in other Christian churches to break down both physical and attitudinal barriers that prohibit many individuals' spiritual and emotional satisfaction and growth. Each Chapter has a unique contribution to advancing the central argument of the study with Chapter One introducing and painting a backdrop against which the problem of the marginalisation and exclusion of women in church leadership and structures must be understood. In Chapter Two the researcher reviews the relevant literature, gaining a deeper understanding of what knowledge already exists in the body of knowledge, identifying gaps and using the study to propose solutions for what might be done to mitigate the challenge. In an attempt to guide the study, an appropriate research methodology is suggested and discussed in Chapter Three. This chapter deals with what data needed to be collected and what instrument had to be used to analyse the data. The appropriateness of the research methodology is of the essence in deciding what path the study must follow to realise the objectives of the study and respond to the set research questions. In Chapter Four, the collected data is presented and analysed using the mechanisms proposed in Chapter Three. Finally, a consolidation of the findings is presented in a summary with recommendations of what mechanisms the researcher has distilled from the analysed data.Thesis (PhD) -- Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, 202

Exclusion of women in the church governance structures : The Case of the Baptist Church of Southern Africa in Cradock Region

In every community there are women. However, they are often marginalized because they are perceived as being unable to make a meaningful contribution to various economic endeavours or society in general. Sometimes they are shunned by their own families, while even church communities have been known to treat women in thoughtless ways. As a result, their spiritual potential cannot be effectively tapped. The research has explored many experiences of women in the mainstream Baptist Churches of Southern Africa in Cradock Region in the Eastern Cape. The study delves into the barriers that prevent the full inclusion of women in church life and what churches are and/or should be doing to remove such barriers so that women can embrace all that a church has to offer and progress on their spiritual journey. The study also looks at the importance of systematic theology in the church and how it should be directed at enabling women to exercise their spiritual gifts. The study applied the theoretical framework that discussed what is faced by women in the church, providing in-depth literature and Biblical review, and examining selected individuals who contributed to the study on what is faced by women daily in their spiritual growth. It provided important insights into how involved the participants are in church activities and whether they face subtle or more overt discrimination. A few strategies were also considered aimed at improving conditions for excluded women in the church, not only through better physical access but also through greater acceptance by the church leadership and the membership as a whole. The findings from the study will not only help the churches that were the focus of the fieldwork to help their women members embrace church life more fully and exercise their spiritual gifts, but they will also provide important insights for the broader Christian church towards the potential of inclusive community that will contribute richly to the spiritual enhancement of their church, family and community. For the survey work, the researcher adopted a qualitative approach. The participants' sample consisted of adults with a range of women and men of the church. Supplementary input was solicited from women and men who understand the challenges presented by both parties – particularly when a lack of familiarity with certain physical conditions leads to an unthinking, and sometimes uncaring, attitude. The data has been collected using informal and semi-structured interviews and observation. Being able to exercise choice and having control over their lives and a sense of independence were singled out as being of great importance to the women participants, as these factors contributed to their well-being and satisfaction with life. Most of the participants reported that they were not warmly embraced by their churches, because of their gender, and they were able to lead a fulfilling life of worship. However, more could be done to enhance their participation in church affairs and to become role models for other church communities that are not as accommodating through a lack of knowledge, training and resources. The research only focused on the rural, white, Coloured, Indian and African residential areas in Cradock in the Eastern Cape. Therefore, the study will only focus on the Baptist Church of Southern Africa in Cradock Region and should ideally not be generalized to areas other than those selected for this study. There is much scope for more detailed research to be conducted on disability in other Christian churches to break down both physical and attitudinal barriers that prohibit many individuals' spiritual and emotional satisfaction and growth. Each Chapter has a unique contribution to advancing the central argument of the study with Chapter One introducing and painting a backdrop against which the problem of the marginalisation and exclusion of women in church leadership and structures must be understood. In Chapter Two the researcher reviews the relevant literature, gaining a deeper understanding of what knowledge already exists in the body of knowledge, identifying gaps and using the study to propose solutions for what might be done to mitigate the challenge. In an attempt to guide the study, an appropriate research methodology is suggested and discussed in Chapter Three. This chapter deals with what data needed to be collected and what instrument had to be used to analyse the data. The appropriateness of the research methodology is of the essence in deciding what path the study must follow to realise the objectives of the study and respond to the set research questions. In Chapter Four, the collected data is presented and analysed using the mechanisms proposed in Chapter Three. Finally, a consolidation of the findings is presented in a summary with recommendations of what mechanisms the researcher has distilled from the analysed data.Thesis (PhD) -- Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, 202

Rapid Veterinary Diagnosis of Bovine Reproductive Infectious Diseases from Semen Using Paper-Origami DNA Microfluidics

The health and well-being of cattle is an important issue in maintaining and increasing global agricultural output. In dairy production within low and middle income countries (LMICs), there is a significant biosensing challenge in detecting sexually transmitted infection (STI) pathogens during animal husbandry, due in part to difficulties associated with the limited infrastructure for veterinary medicine. Here we demonstrate low-cost, multiplexed, and sample-to-answer paper-origami tests for the detection of three bovine infectious reproductive diseases in semen samples, collected at a test site in rural India. Pathogen DNA from one viral pathogen, bovine herpes virus-1 (BoHV-1), and two bacteria (Brucella and Leptospira) was extracted, amplified (using loop-mediated isothermal amplification, LAMP), and detected fluorescently, enabling <1 pg (∼ from 115 to 274 copies per reaction) of target genomic DNA to be measured. Data was collected as a fluorescence signal either visually, using a low-cost hand-held torch, or digitally with a mobile-phone camera. Limits of detection and sensitivities of the paper-origami device for the three pathogens were also evaluated using pathogen-inoculated semen samples and were as few as 50 Leptospira organisms, 50 CFU Brucella, and 1 TCID50 BoHV-1. Semen samples from elite bulls at a germplasm center were also tested in double-blind tests, as a demonstrator for a low-cost, user-friendly point-of-care sensing platform, for in-the-field resource-limited regions. The sensors showed excellent levels of sensitivity and specificity, and for the first time a demonstrated ability of the application of paper microfluidics devices for the diagnosis multiple infectious diseases from semen samples

Modelling the control of bovine brucellosis in India.

Brucellosis imposes substantial impacts on livestock production and public health worldwide. A stochastic, age-structured model incorporating herd demographics was developed describing within- and between-herd transmission of Brucella abortus in dairy cattle herds. The model was fitted to data from a cross-sectional study conducted in Punjab State of India and used to evaluate the effectiveness of control strategies under consideration. Based on model results, stakeholder acceptance and constraints regarding vaccine supply, vaccination of replacement calves in large farms should be prioritized. Test and removal applied at early stages of the control programme where seroprevalence is high would not constitute an effective or acceptable use of resources because significant numbers of animals would be 'removed' (culled or not used for breeding) based on false positive results. To achieve sustained reductions in brucellosis, policymakers must commit to maintaining vaccination in the long term, which may eventually reduce frequency of infection in the livestock reservoir to a low enough level for elimination to be a realistic objective. This work provides key strategic insights into the control of brucellosis in India, which has the largest cattle population globally, and a general modelling framework for evaluating control strategies in endemic settings

Quantitative assessment of the probability of introducing bovine brucellosis into English cattle herds by imported live cattle

A stochastic simulation model was developed to estimate the quarterly probability (PIntro) of introducing bovine brucellosis into English cattle herds, by at least one imported live cattle (potential carrier of Brucella abortus). The probability of spread after introduction was not included and imports from several countries were considered. Information used to parameterise model´s inputs was obtained from the literature, legislation and analysis of several national datasets (2013 to 2016), which contained information on imported cattle and testing schemes used in the English cattle population. Exporting countries were divided according to official brucellosis status “J” into: Officially Brucellosis Free (OBF), Non-Officially Brucellosis Free (Non-OBF) and in OBF-Validation (during the first five years of OBF status). The entire English cattle population was divided into eight strata “S” by combination of laboratory testing data and herd type. The only risk mitigation measure considered was the testing for antibodies on animals older than one year and imported from Non-OBF countries. Probabilities of introduction at herd and stratum level were combined into the overall national PIntro. Two scenarios were run. In the baseline scenario, the between herds prevalence BHP(OBF) in OBF countries was set according to information from EFSA and from the EU legislation. In the alternative scenario only the former was used and BHP(OBF) was set very low/negligible. For Non-OBF and OBF-Validation countries, the BHP was set with distributions based on the literature. In the baseline scenario, between 2013 and 2016, the quarterly median PIntro ranged from 1.3% to 5.5%. For the last year considered, the median of the quarterly medians PIntro was 2.8% (median of 5th percentiles = 0.4%; median of 95th percentiles =10.7%). Therefore, on average, at least one introduction could be expected each (approximated) 36 surveillance periods (9, 281), so each ≈ 9 years (2; 70). According to the alternative scenario, the PIntro was very low and on average at least one introduction could be expected each ≈ 125 years

Rapid veterinary diagnosis of bovine reproductive infectious diseases from semen using paper-origami DNA microfluidics

The health and well-being of cattle is a significant concern for global agricultural output. In dairy production within low and middle income countries (LMICs), there is a significant biosensing challenge in detecting sexually transmitted infection (STI) pathogens during animal husbandry, due in part to difficulties associated with the limited infrastructure for veterinary medicine. Here we demonstrate low-cost, multiplexed and sample-to-answer paper-origami tests for the detection of three bovine infectious reproductive diseases in semen samples, collected at a test site in rural India. Pathogen DNA from one viral pathogen, Bovine Herpes virus-1 (BoHV-1) and two bacteria (Brucella and Leptospira) was extracted, amplified (using loop-mediated isothermal amplification, LAMP) and detected fluorescently, enabling &lt;1 pg (~ from 115 to 274 copies per reaction) of target genomic DNA to be measured. Data was collected as a fluorescence signal either visually, using a low-cost hand-held torch, or digitally with a mobile-phone camera. Limits of detection and sensitivities of the paper-origami device for the three pathogens were also evaluated using pathogen-inoculated semen samples and were as few as 50 Leptospira organisms, 50 CFU Brucella and 1 TCID50. BoHV-1. Semen samples from elite bulls at a germplasm centre were also tested in double-blind tests, as a demonstrator for a low cost, user-friendly point-of-care sensing platform, for in-the-field resource-limited regions. The sensors showed excellent levels of sensitivity and specificity, and for the first of time a demonstrated ability of the application of paper-origami devices for the diagnosis multiple infectious diseases from semen samples