ADAPTATION CELLULAIRE À LA DISPONIBILITÉ DES ACIDES AMINÉS : MÉCANISMES IMPLIQUÉS DANS LA RÉGULATION DE L’EXPRESSION DES GÈNES

In mammals, the impact of nutrients on gene expression has become an important area of research. Nevertheless, the current understanding of amino acid-dependent control of gene expression is limited. Amino acids have multiple and important functions, so their homeostasis has to be finely maintained. However, the amino acidemia can be affected by certain nutritional conditions or various forms of aggression. It follows that mammals have to adjust several of their physiological functions involved in the adaptation to amino acid availability by regulating expression of numerous genes. The aim of this review is to examine the role of amino acids in regulating mammalian gene expression and physiological functions. A limitation for several amino acids strongly increases the expression of target genes such as IGFBP-1, CHOP and asparagine synthetase (AS) genes. The molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of CHOP and AS gene transcription in response to amino acid starvation have been partly identified. Particularly, a signalling pathway requiring the protein kinase GCN2 and the transcription factor ATF4 has been described to sense the amino acid limitation. In case of an amino acid imbalanced food source, this pathway has been shown to decrease food intake by activating a neuronal circuit. Taken together, the results discussed in this review demonstrate that amino acids by themselves can act as “signal” molecules with important roles in the control of gene expression and physiological functions.Bien que l'étude du rôle des nutriments dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes chez les Mammifères soit devenue un domaine de recherche important les mécanismes impliquant les acides aminés sont encore peu connus. Du fait de l'importance de leurs rôles physiologiques, l'homéostasie des acides aminés doit être finement régulée. Cependant, les concentrations plasmatiques des acides aminés peuvent être affectées par certaines conditions nutritionnelles ou différentes formes d'agression. En régulant l'expression d'un grand nombre de gènes, l'organisme a la capacité d'ajuster certaines de ses fonctions impliquées dans l'adaptation à la disponibilité en acides aminés. Cette revue vise à rassembler les données actuelles concernant le rôle des acides aminés dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes et des fonctions physiologiques chez les Mammifères. Pour plusieurs acides aminés dits « indispensables », une diminution de leur concentration entraîne la stimulation de l'expression de gènes cibles spécifiques tels que les gènes codant pour IGFBP-1, CHOP et l'asparagine synthétase (AS). Les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans l'activation transcriptionnelle de CHOP et AS en réponse à une carence en acide aminé ont été en partie identifiés. En particulier, une voie de signalisation faisant intervenir la protéine kinase GCN2 et le facteur de transcription ATF4 joue le rôle de senseur des déficits en acides aminés. Au niveau physiologique, des travaux récents montrent que l'activation de cette voie permet par le biais d'un circuit neuronal, d'inhiber la prise alimentaire lorsque l'apport nutritionnel en acides aminés est déséquilibré. L'ensemble des données présentées dans cette revue montre que les acides aminés peuvent agir comme des molécules « signal » contrôlant l'expression de gènes afin de réguler certaines fonctions physiologiques

ATF2 is required for amino acid-regulated transcription by orchestrating specific histone acetylation

The transcriptional activation of CHOP (a CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-related gene) by amino acid deprivation involves the activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2) and the activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) binding the amino acid response element (AARE) within the promoter. Using a chromatin immunoprecipitation approach, we report that in vivo binding of phospho-ATF2 and ATF4 to CHOP AARE are associated with acetylation of histones H4 and H2B in response to amino acid starvation. A time course analysis reveals that ATF2 phosphorylation precedes histone acetylation, ATF4 binding and the increase in CHOP mRNA. We also show that ATF4 binding and histone acetylation are two independent events that are required for the CHOP induction upon amino acid starvation. Using ATF2-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we demonstrate that ATF2 is essential in the acetylation of histone H4 and H2B in vivo. The role of ATF2 on histone H4 acetylation is dependent on its binding to the AARE and can be extended to other amino acid regulated genes. Thus, ATF2 is involved in promoting the modification of the chromatin structure to enhance the transcription of a number of amino acid-regulated genes

The GCN2 kinase is required for activating autophagy in response to indispensable amino acid deficiencies

ORGANIZING COMMITTEEChairs: Didier Attaix - Lydie Combaret - Daniel TaillandierDaniel Béchet - Agnès Claustre - Cécile Coudy-Gandilhon - Christiane Deval - Gérard Donadille - Cécile PolgeSCIENTIFIC COMMITTEEDidier Attaix - Lydie Combaret - Alfred L. Goldberg - Ron Hay - Germana Meroni - Marco Sandri - Daniel Taillandier - Keiji Tanaka - Simon S. WingPoster Session 3 - AutophagyImbalances in dietary amino acid (AA) supply, including deficits in one or more indispensable amino acids (IAA), are stressful conditions for the organism that needs to modulate a number of physiological functions to adapt to this situation. In particular, since there is no system dedicated for storing AA in the body, the release of free AA occurs by proteolysis at the expense of functional proteins, notably in the liver by up-regulating autophagy. This process can be rapidly mobilized within the cell in response to a number of stresses, by post-translational regulations of autophagy-related proteins already present in the cytosol. The protein kinase GCN2 is activated upon IAA scarcity in order to promote cell adaptation to a nutritional stress condition. In response to IAA limitation, GCN2 couples the accumulation of uncharged transfer RNAs to the phosphorylation of eIF2a on serine 51. By this mean, GCN2 diminishes the overall protein synthesis rate, while simultaneously activating a gene expression program mediated by the translational upregulation of the transcription factor ATF4. Our recent work has shown that the GCN2/p-eIF2a/ATF4 signaling pathway plays an essential role in the induction of transcription of a number of autophagy-related genes involved in the maintenance of the autophagic process in response to an IAA deficiency (B’chir et al., 2013). In the present study we sought to determine whether GCN2 could play a role in regulating the early stages of autophagy. The most upstream complex for triggering the autophagic process (initiation complex) is notably composed of the ULK kinase and the ATG13 bridging protein, and is classically viewed to be controlled by mTORC1. Indeed, the activity of the autophagy initiation complex has been shown to be modulated according to AA availability by the activity of mTORC1, which phosphorylates different sites in ULK. Here, by using a GCN2 knock-out mouse model we investigated the role of GCN2 in the upregulation of autophagy in the first hour of an IAA deficiency. Our results show that 1) GCN2 is required for upregulating liver autophagy in response to an IAA-deficient diet, which is confirmed in cell culture model; 2) this early activation of the autophagic process does not require the transcription factor ATF4; 3) moreover, while this effect can occur without concomitant inhibition of mTORC1 activity, our results suggest that ULK/ATG13 couple is involved in the GCN2-dependent activation of autophagy. Our results demonstrate that in the particular model of an IAA deficiency GCN2 plays a preponderant role in triggering the adaptive autophagy upregulation, a mechanism which can operate without concomitant inhibition of mTORC1 activit

Hypothalamic eIF2α signaling regulates food intake.

The reversible phosphorylation of the α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) is a highly conserved signal implicated in the cellular adaptation to numerous stresses such as the one caused by amino acid limitation. In response to dietary amino acid deficiency, the brain-specific activation of the eIF2α kinase GCN2 leads to food intake inhibition. We report here that GCN2 is rapidly activated in the mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH) after consumption of a leucine-deficient diet. Furthermore, knockdown of GCN2 in this particular area shows that MBH GCN2 activity controls the onset of the aversive response. Importantly, pharmacological experiments demonstrate that the sole phosphorylation of eIF2α in the MBH is sufficient to regulate food intake. eIF2α signaling being at the crossroad of stress pathways activated in several pathological states, our study indicates that hypothalamic eIF2α phosphorylation could play a critical role in the onset of anorexia associated with certain diseases.This work was supported by grants from “Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale,” “Société Française de Nutrition,” Ajinomoto Amino Acid Research Program (3ARP), and “Agence Nationale pour la Recherche.”This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Elsevier via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2014.01.00

Genetic changes in human pluripotent stem cells: implications for basic biology and regenerative medicine

Chronic tissue and organ failure caused by an injury, disease, ageing or congenital defects represents some of the most complex therapeutic challenges and poses a significant financial healthcare burden. Regenerative medicine strategies aim to fulfil the unmet clinical need by restoring the normal tissue function either through stimulating the endogenous tissue repair or by using transplantation strategies to replace the missing or defective cells. Stem cells represent an essential pillar of regenerative medicine efforts as they provide a source of progenitors or differentiated cells for use in cell replacement therapies. Whilst significant leaps have been made in controlling the stem cell fates and differentiating them to cell types of interest, transitioning bespoke cellular products from an academic environment to off-the-shelf clinical treatments brings about a whole new set of challenges which encompass manufacturing, regulatory and funding issues. Notwithstanding the need to resolve such issues before cell replacement therapies can benefit global healthcare, mounting progress in the field has highlighted regenerative medicine as a realistic prospect for treating some of the previously incurable conditions

The p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF) is a cofactor of ATF4 for amino acid-regulated transcription of CHOP

When an essential amino acid is limited, a signaling cascade is triggered that leads to increased translation of the ‘master regulator’, activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), and resulting in the induction of specific target genes. Binding of ATF4 to the amino acid response element (AARE) is an essential step in the transcriptional activation of CHOP (a CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-related gene) by amino acid deprivation. We set out to identify proteins that interact with ATF4 and that play a role in the transcriptional activation of CHOP. Using a tandem affinity purification (TAP) tag approach, we identified p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF) as a novel interaction partner of ATF4 in leucine-starved cells. We show that the N-terminal region of ATF4 is required for a direct interaction with PCAF and demonstrate that PCAF is involved in the full transcriptional response of CHOP by amino acid starvation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that PCAF is engaged on the CHOP AARE in response to amino acid starvation and that ATF4 is essential for its recruitment. We also show that PCAF stimulates ATF4-driven transcription via its histone acetyltransferase domain. Thus PCAF acts as a coactivator of ATF4 and is involved in the enhancement of CHOP transcription following amino acid starvation

GDF15 Provides an Endocrine Signal of Nutritional Stress in Mice and Humans.

GDF15 is an established biomarker of cellular stress. The fact that it signals via a specific hindbrain receptor, GFRAL, and that mice lacking GDF15 manifest diet-induced obesity suggest that GDF15 may play a physiological role in energy balance. We performed experiments in humans, mice, and cells to determine if and how nutritional perturbations modify GDF15 expression. Circulating GDF15 levels manifest very modest changes in response to moderate caloric surpluses or deficits in mice or humans, differentiating it from classical intestinally derived satiety hormones and leptin. However, GDF15 levels do increase following sustained high-fat feeding or dietary amino acid imbalance in mice. We demonstrate that GDF15 expression is regulated by the integrated stress response and is induced in selected tissues in mice in these settings. Finally, we show that pharmacological GDF15 administration to mice can trigger conditioned taste aversion, suggesting that GDF15 may induce an aversive response to nutritional stress.This work and authors were funded by the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre; NIHR Rare Disease Translational Research Collaboration; Medical Research Council [MC_UU_12012/2 and MRC_MC_UU_12012/3]; MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit [MRC_MC_UU_12012/5 and MRC_MC_UU_12012.1]; Wellcome Trust Strategic Award [100574/Z/12/Z and 100140]; Wellcome Trust [107064 , 095515/Z/11/Z , 098497/Z/12/Z, 106262/Z/14/Z and 106263/Z/14/Z]; British Heart Foundation [RG/12/13/29853]; Addenbrooke’s Charitable Trust / Evelyn Trust Cambridge Clinical Research Fellowship [16-69] US Department of Agriculture: 2010-34323-21052; EFSD project grant and a Royal College of Surgeons Research Fellowship, Diabetes UK Harry Keen intermediate clinical fellowship (17/0005712). European Research Council, Bernard Wolfe Health Neuroscience Endowment, Experimental Medicine Training Initiative/AstraZeneca and Medimmune

Amino Acid Availability Controls TRB3 Transcription in Liver through the GCN2/eIF2α/ATF4 Pathway

In mammals, plasma amino acid concentrations are markedly affected by dietary or pathological conditions. It has been well established that amino acids are involved in the control of gene expression. Up to now, all the information concerning the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of gene transcription by amino acid availability has been obtained in cultured cell lines. The present study aims to investigate the mechanisms involved in transcriptional activation of the TRB3 gene following amino acid limitation in mice liver. The results show that TRB3 is up-regulated in the liver of mice fed a leucine-deficient diet and that this induction is quickly reversible. Using transient transfection and chromatin immunoprecipitation approaches in hepatoma cells, we report the characterization of a functional Amino Acid Response Element (AARE) in the TRB3 promoter and the binding of ATF4, ATF2 and C/EBPβ to this AARE sequence. We also provide evidence that only the binding of ATF4 to the AARE plays a crucial role in the amino acid-regulated transcription of TRB3. In mouse liver, we demonstrate that the GCN2/eIF2α/ATF4 pathway is essential for the induction of the TRB3 gene transcription in response to a leucine-deficient diet. Therefore, this work establishes for the first time that the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of gene transcription by amino acid availability are functional in mouse liver

Acides aminés et régulation de la prise alimentaire

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Adaptations to reduced availability of essential amino acids: role of the GCN2-eIF2α-ATF4 signaling pathway.

Oral presentation in the Cancer Cachexia Society Seminar SeriesInternational audienceThe goal of Dr Maurin and her group is to better understand the mechanisms involved in adaptation and restoration of amino acid (AA) homeostasis during stress, at both the cellular and whole-organism levels, with a particular focus on the role of the GCN2-eIF2α-ATF4 signaling pathway. Their work notably contributed to highlight the central role of this pathway in food intake reduction as an early response to one essential AA deficiency in the meal and in the upregulation of autophagy during essential AA deprivations