Evaluation of in-feed additives in early-weaned pigs : study of the XTRACT(tm), a plant extracts based additive /

Descripció del recurs: el 28 de març de 2006El principal objectiu d'aquest treball es avaluar els efectes d'un additiu comercial XT (5% carvacrol, 3% cinamaldehide, 2% oleoresina d capsicum) sobre els rendiments productius i diferents paràmetres de la fisiologia digestiva del garrí deslletat precoçment. Un altre objectiu d'aquest treball es avaluar les possibles interaccions del XT amb altres ingredients, nutrients i additius de la dieta. Aquest treball s'ha d'entendre com a part d'un ampli pla de recerca multicentric organitzat per la companyia Pancosma. En concret hem avaluat i) l'efecte del XT als paràmetres mencionats depenent del nivell i font de proteïna, ii) la possible interacció entre l'XT i l'àcid fòrmic, i la comparació de l'efecte del XT amb l'acció de l'avilamicina i el butirat sòdic. Finalment, després de tres anys de col·laboració i donat l'interès de la companyia en desenvolupar nous productes basats en extractes de plantes, hem desenvolupat un mètode in vitro per testar el poder antimicrobià d'un ampli ventall de substàncies derivades de plantes. Al treball in vitro, el nostre objectiu ha sigut desenvolupar un mètode molt simple però realista, utilitzant el contingut de diferent trams del tracte intestinal, obtingut dels porcs sense cap modificació, i incubant-lo curts períodes de temps. Resultats productius Els resultats productius són molt variables entre experiments. Aquestes variacions són degudes probablement a l'ús de diferent instal·lacions, edats i estats de salut dels animals i la diferent composició de les dietes bassals. Mesures fisiològiques i físiques La digestibilitat ileal i rectal i el pH en les diferents part del tracte gastrointestinal s'han estudiat de manera sistemàtica a les tres proves in vivo però no s'han obtingut resultats consistents. Tanmateix, la inclusió de extractes de plantes a la segona prova va provocar un alentiment del buidament gàstric realcionat amb un augment del pH de l'estomac. Poblacions microbianes El resultat més consistent de tots els obtinguts es l'augment de lactobacillus amb la inclusió del XT a les dietes. Malauradament, la rellevància d'aquest augment no està gens clara perquè no va tenir relació directa amb cap benefici productiu. La inclusió del XT ha afectat també altres paràmetres microbians: la concentració de bases púriques i els perfils d'àcids grassos volàtils. Aquest resultats no són molt consistents i de vegades contraris. Paràmetres epitelials S'han estudiat els efectes del XT a l'estructura epitelial però una vegada més els resultats són molt variables depenent de la prova. De totes maneres queda clar que l'XT exerceix una gran influencia sobre certs paràmetres immunes del epiteli, i s'han de continuar investigant amb tècniques més especifiques. Estudis in vitro El mètode in vitro s'ha utilitzat amb èxit pe compara diferents additius. Les variacions de fermentació in vitro no només depenen del additiu utilitzat, sinó també de l'edat de l'animal i de la part del tracte gastrointestinal utilitzada d'on s'obté l'inocul. Aquestes variacions s'han d'analitzar amb deteniment. D'aquests estudis podem concloure que les dosis comercials de XT no presenten efectes antimicrobians directes sobre les poblacions microbianes estudiades (lactobacillus i enterobacterias). Utilitzant el contingut de jejú com inocul, es necessiten dosis properes a 10000 ppm per obtenir efectes antimicrobians. D'altre banda, amb dosis més baixes de les substàncies pures s'aconsegueixen efectes similars. Aquestes dosis varien entre 500 i 3000 ppm de carvacrol i cinamaldehid, depenent de la part del tracte gastrointestinal estudiada. Amb tots els productes, la dosis mínima necessària per inhibir la fermentació es sempre menor amb el contingut del jejú.The main objective of this PhD dissertation is to evaluate the effects of the commercial additive XT (5% carvacrol, 3% cinnamaldehyde, 2% capsicum oleoresin) on productive performance and on different parameters of normal digestive physiology of the early weaned pig: digestibility, pH, epithelial structure, bacterial populations and metabolic activity. It is also an objective of this work to evaluate possible interactions of XT with other ingredients, nutrients and additives included in the diet. This work must be understood in a broader multi-centric research plan organized by the company Pancosma. In particular, the experiments here presented evaluate i) the effects of XT on the above mentioned parameters depending on the CP level and source, ii) the possible interaction between XT and formic acid, and finally the comparison of the effects of XT with the action of avylamycin and butyrate. After three years of collaboration and given the interest of the company in developing new products based on plant extracts, we developed an in vitro methodology to test the antimicrobial effects of a wide range of plant derived substances. Concerning the in vitro method, our objective was to develop a very simple but realistic method able to obtain significant results, using crude intestinal content obtained from the pigs and incubating it for short periods. Productive performance The performance results were very variable among the experiments. These variations were probably due to the use of different facilities, age and health status of the animals and the different composition of the basal diets. Physiologic and physical parameters Ileal and whole tract digestibility and pH measurements in different parts of the gastrointestinal tract were systematically studied in the three in vivo trials but no consistent effects of including plant extracts were found. However, plant extracts inclusion in the diet in the second trial resulted in a decrease of gastric emptying rate and an increase of pH. Microbial populations The most consistent result in the three experiments was an increase in lactobacilli counts with the inclusion of XT in the diets. However, the relevance of this higher intestinal lactobacilli content is not clear, since there was no direct relation with productive benefits. XT inclusion also had an effect on other microbial parameters: purine bases concentration and VFA profile. However, those results were not very consistent and often were highly controversial. Epithelial parameters The effects of XT on the epithelial structure were studied and, once more, the results were very variable depending on the trial. However, a high influence of XT was found on some immune parameters measured in the epithelium and in the lamina propia, results that encourage continuing investigating these effects with more specific techniques. In vitro studies The in vitro method was successfully used to compare different additives. Variations in in vitro fermentation were found not only depending on the additive used but on the age of the animal and on the gastrointestinal tract part used as source of the inoculum. These variations should be studied in more detail in the future. From these studies, we can conclude that the recommended commercial dose of XT presents no direct antimicrobial effect on the studied populations (lactobacilli and enterobacteria). Doses of near to 10000 ppm are needed to obtain antimicrobial effects in jejunum content. However, lower doses were needed when the pure substances instead of the XT mixture were used. These doses were between 500 and 3000 ppm for carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde, depending on the gastrointestinal tract part studied. The minimum dose of all studied substances to produce antimicrobial effects was always lower for the jejunum than for stomach or cecum content

Managing variability in decision making in swine growing-finishing units

peer-reviewedAnalysis of data collected from pig farms may be useful to understand factors affecting pig health and productive performance. However, obtaining these data and drawing conclusions from them can be done at different levels and presents several challenges. In the present study, information from 688 batches of growing-finishing (GF) pigs (average initial and final body weight of 19.1 and 108.5 kg respectively) from 404 GF farms integrated in 7 companies was obtained between July 2008 and July 2010 in Spain by survey. Management and facility factors associated with feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality were studied by multiple linear regression analysis in each single company (A to G) and in an overall database (OD). Factors studied were geographic location of the farm, trimester the pigs entered the farm, breed of sire and sex segregation in pens (BREGENSEG), use of circovirus vaccine, number of origins the pigs were obtained from, age of the farm, percentage of slatted floor, type of feeder, drinker and ventilation, number of phases and form of feed, antibiotic administration system, water source, and number and initial weight of pigs. Results In two or more companies studied and/or in OD, the trimester when pigs were placed in the farm, BREGENSEG, number of origins of the pigs, age of the farm and initial body weight were factors associated with FCR. Regarding mortality, trimester of placement, number of origins of the pigs, water source in the farm, number of pigs placed and the initial body weight were relevant factors. Age of the farm, antibiotic administration system, and water source were only provided by some of the studied companies and were not included in the OD model, however, when analyzed in particular companies these three variables had an important effect and may be variables of interest in companies that do not record them. Conclusions Analysing data collected from farms at different levels helps better understand factors associated with productive performance of pig herds. Out of the studied factors trimester of placement and number of origins of the pigs were the most relevant factors associated with FCR and mortality.This research was supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (project AGL2011-29960). We also thank the Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (MAEC-AECID) for research fellowship

Do weaner pigs need in-feed antibiotics to ensure good health and welfare?

peer-reviewedThis study was part of the WELPIG project which was funded from internal Teagasc funds. During the writing of this paper JACD’s position was funded by the Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine under the Research Stimulus Fund (PathSurvPigs 14/S/832) as part of the National Development PlanAntibiotics (AB) are used in intensive pig production systems to control infectious diseases and they are suspected to be a major source of antibiotic resistance. Following the ban on AB use as growth promoters in the EU, their prophylactic use in-feed is now under review. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of removing prophylactic in-feed AB on pig health and welfare indicators. Every Monday for six weeks, a subset of 70 pigs were weaned, tagged and sorted into two groups of 35 pigs according to weight (9.2 ± 0.6 kg). AB were removed from the diet of one group (NO, n=6) and maintained in the other group (AB, n=6) for nine weeks. Ten focal pigs were chosen per group. After c. five weeks each group was split into two pens of c.17 pigs for the following 4 weeks. Data were recorded weekly. Skin, tail, ear, flank and limb lesions of focal pigs were scored according to severity. The number of animals per group affected by health deviations was also recorded. The number of fights and harmful behaviours (ear, tail bites) per group was counted during 3×5min observations once per week. Data were analysed using mixed model equations and binomial logistic regression. At group level, AB pigs were more likely to have tail (OR=1.70; P=0.05) but less likely to have ear lesions than NO pigs (OR=0.46; P<0.05). The number of ear bites (21.4±2.15 vs. 17.3±1.61; P<0.05) and fights (6.91±0.91 vs. 5.58±0.72; P=0.09) was higher in AB than in NO pigs. There was no effect of treatment on health deviations and the frequency of these was low. Removing AB from the feed of weaner pigs had minimal effects on health and welfare indicators

Evaluation of the Prevalence and Risk Factors for Undernutrition in Hospitalized Dogs

Hospitalized dogs are predisposed to undernutrition, which can potentially affect outcome. This study evaluated the prevalence of undernutrition in hospitalized dogs (measured as loss of body condition score, BCS and body weight, BW) and studied the risk factors that affect nutritional status, and outcome (discharge or death). Data was collected prospectively during 9 months from 500 hospitalized dogs with a hospitalization length longer than 24 h in a veterinary teaching hospital in Spain. The BCS and BW changes were modeled using multiple linear regression and outcome was modeled using logistic regression. The risk factors studied were energy intake, hospitalization length, initial BW and BCS, age, sex, severity of clinical signs, department of admission, fasting or nutritional interventions, and the presence of anorexia, vomiting or diarrhea at admission. Most of the dogs (84.0%) consumed less than 25% of their energy requirements and only 3.4% of the dogs met these requirements. The majority of hospitalized dogs maintained their BCS (78.2%) and BW (77%) during hospitalization. Older patients (P = 0.040), higher initial BCS (P &lt; 0.001), and vomiting at admission (P = 0.030) were associated with a decrease of BCS status during hospitalization. BCS was also decreased in patients with low energy intake, particularly in patients with hospitalization length longer than 3 days (P &lt; 0.001). Both longer hospitalization length (P &lt; 0.001) and vomiting at admission (P = 0.004) were also associated with a decrease in BW. Dogs that consumed their theoretical energy requirements [P &lt; 0.001; Odds Ratio (OR) 0.95, 95% CI: 0.92 to 0.98], and had a higher initial BCS (P &lt; 0.001; OR 0.39, 95% CI: 0.22 to 0.63) had a lower odds of dying. Anorexia at admission (P &lt; 0.001; OR 5.67, 95% CI: 2.23 to 15.47) was associated with a higher risk of death. The results from this study support the finding that undernutrition is relatively common during hospitalization, with age, hospitalization length, decreased energy intake, and vomiting at admission as risk factors for undernutrition. Furthermore, an association was found between inadequate energy intake and death

Prevalence of welfare outcomes in the weaner and finisher stages of the production cycle on 31 Irish pig farms

peer-reviewedBackground Knowledge on the most prevalent welfare problems for pigs in different production stages is required to improve herd management plans. Thirty-one farrow-to-finish pig farms were visited between July and November 2015 to assess the welfare of pigs using the multicriteria approach of the Welfare Quality® protocol. On each farm, 6 pens were selected using proportionate stratified sampling in the first weaner (S1, 4 to 8 wks), second weaner (S2, 8 to 13 wks) and finisher stage (S3, 13 to 23 wks), excluding hospital pens. Each pen was observed for 10 min and the number of pigs affected by different welfare outcomes was recorded. The percentage of pigs affected was calculated and ranked to identify the most prevalent outcomes within each production stage. Differences between production stages were analysed using generalised linear mixed models for binomial data with pen within stage and farm as a random effect. Results Tail and ear lesions showed the highest prevalence; however, large variation was observed between farms. In S1 the most prevalent welfare outcomes (presented as median prevalence) were poor body condition (4.4%), lethargic pigs (1.5%), scouring (20.3% of pens) and huddling (3.7%). In S2 and S3 outcomes related to injurious behaviour (tail lesions: 5.9% [S2] and 10.5% [S3], ear lesions: 9.1% [S2] and 3.3% [S3], and flank lesions: 0.4% [S2] and 1.3% [S3]), lameness (0.8% [S2] and 1.1% [S3]), bursitis (3.9% [S2] and 7.5% [S3]) and hernias (1.6% [S2] and 1.8% [S3]) were more prevalent. Conclusions A large variation was observed for the recorded welfare outcomes corresponding to the different challenges pigs experience during the different stages of production on commercial pig farms. The prevalence of pigs affected by lesions caused by injurious behavior is a cause for concern and requires a collaborative approach to identify appropriate intervention strategies. This information could be used to further investigate appropriate benchmark values for different welfare outcomes that would assist the pig industry to develop appropriate health and welfare management plans to minimise welfare problems. At herd level such plans should include information on aspects of intervention, treatment, and the management of hospital pens as well as euthanasia.This study was part of the PIGWELFIND project funded by the Research Stimulus Fund (11/S/107) of the Irish Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine under the National Development Plan (2007–2013). We acknowledge the Walsh Fellowship Scheme for providing funding for Nienke van Staaveren. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Ear, tail and skin lesions vary according to different production flows in a farrow-to-finish pig farm

peer-reviewedBackground Pig performance and risk of disease are associated with production flow. Given the link between health and welfare, it is likely that animal welfare indicators are also associated with production flow. This study investigated the association between production flow and tail, ear and skin lesions on a farm with a purported ‘all-in/all-out’ policy. This was an observational study whereby pigs were managed according to routine farm practice. A total of 1,016 pigs born within 1 week from the same batch were followed through the production stages and the presence or absence of welfare indicators was recorded at 4, 7, 9, 12, 16 and 24 weeks of age. Three production flows were retrospectively identified: flow 1 = ‘normal’ pigs that advanced through the production stages together ‘on time’, flow 2 = pigs delayed from advancing from the 1st to the 2nd nursery stage by 1 week and flow 3 = pigs delayed from advancing through the production stages by > 1 week. A nested case control design was applied by matching pigs by sow parity, number of born alive and birth weight. Results The presence of ear lesions was 4.5 less likely in pigs in flow 2 and 2.9 times less likely in pigs in flow 3 (P < 0.001) compared to pigs in flow 1. Pigs in flow 3 were 2.2 more likely to have tail and 1.6 times more likely to have ear lesions (P < 0.001) compared to pigs in flow 2. Pigs in flow 2 were less likely to have tail lesions compared with pigs in flow 1 (P < 0.05). Differences between production flows for the risk of skin lesions varied according to age (P < 0.05). Conclusion All production flows were associated with a high risk of lesions which raises concerns for pig welfare. However, risks for ear, tail and skin lesions varied according to each production flow likely due to the specific management practices inherent to each flow. Results from this study could be used to modify existing management practices, thus leading to improvements in animal welfare and possibly performance in intensive pig systems

Value of simplified lung lesions scoring systems to inform future codes for routine meat inspection in pigs

peer-reviewedBackground Across the European Union (EU), efforts are being made to achieve modernisation and harmonisation of meat inspection (MI) code systems. Lung lesions were prioritised as important animal based measures at slaughter, but existing standardized protocols are difficult to implement for routine MI. This study aimed to compare the informative value and feasibility of simplified lung lesion scoring systems to inform future codes for routine post mortem MI. Results Data on lung lesions in finisher pigs were collected at slaughter targeting 83 Irish pig farms, with 201 batches assessed, comprising 31,655 pairs of lungs. Lungs were scored for cranioventral pulmonary consolidations (CVPC) and pleurisy lesions using detailed scoring systems, which were considered the gold standard. Using the data collected, scenarios for possible simplified scoring systems to record CVPC (n = 4) and pleurisy (n = 4) lesions were defined. The measurable outcomes were the prevalence and (if possible) severity scoring at batch level for CVPC and pleurisy. An arbitrary threshold was set to the upper quartile (i.e., the top 25% of batches with high prevalence/severity of CVPC or pleurisy, n = 50). Each pair of measurable outcomes was compared by calculating Spearman rank correlations and assessing if batches above the threshold for one measurable outcome were also above it for their pairwise comparison. All scenarios showed perfect agreement (k = 1) when compared among themselves and the gold standard for the prevalence of CVPC. The agreement among severity outcomes and the gold standard showed moderate to perfect agreement (k = [0.66, 1]). The changes in ranking were negligible for all measurable outcomes of pleurisy for scenarios 1, 2 and 3 when compared with the gold standard (rs ≥ 0.98), but these changes amounted to 50% for scenario 4. Conclusions The best simplified CVPC scoring system is to simply count the number of lung lobes affected excluding the intermediate lobe, which provides the best trade-off between value of information and feasibility, by incorporating information on CVPC prevalence and severity. While for pleurisy evaluation, scenario 3 is recommended. This simplified scoring system provides information on the prevalence of cranial and moderate and severe dorsocaudal pleurisy. Further validation of the scoring systems at slaughter and by private veterinarians and farmers is needed

Removing prophylactic antibiotics from pig feed: how does it affect their performance and health?

peer-reviewedBackground Antibiotics (AB) are an important tool to tackle infectious disease in pig farms; however some research indicates that their frequent mis/over-use may contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance and the WHO has declared that this issue should be addressed. Little is known about the long term consequences of withdrawing prophylactic AB from pig feed; hence we aimed to assess its effects on performance and health of pigs from weaning to slaughter. Six batches of 140 pigs each were monitored on a commercial farm through the weaner and finisher stages to slaughter. In-feed antibiotics were not added to the feed for half of the pigs (NOI) and were added in the other half (ABI) within each batch for the whole weaner stage. Individual pigs in both treatments were treated with parenteral administrations if and when detected as ill or lame. Productive performance, parenteral treatments and mortality were recorded on farm and the presence of respiratory disease was recorded at slaughter. Pen was considered the experimental unit. Results ABI pigs showed higher growth (P = 0.018) and feed intake (P = 0.048) than NOI pigs in the first weaner stage but feed efficiency was not affected (NOI = 1.48 vs. ABI = 1.52). Despite an initial reduction in performance, NOI pigs had similar performance in finisher stage (ADG: NOI = 865.4 vs. ABI = 882.2) and minimal effects on health compared to ABI pigs. No difference between treatments was found at the abattoir for the percentage of pigs affected by pneumonia, pleurisy, pleuropneumonia and abscesses (P > 0.05). Mortality rate was not affected by treatment during the weaner stage (P = 0.806) although it tended to be slightly higher in NOI than ABI pigs during the finisher stage (P = 0.099). Parenteral treatments were more frequent in NOI pigs during the weaner stage (P <  0.001) while no difference was recorded during the finisher stage (P = 0.406). Conclusions These data suggest that the removal of prophylactic in-feed antibiotics is possible with only minor reductions in productive performance and health which can be addressed by improved husbandry and use of parenteral antibiotics

Environmental Risk Factors Influence the Frequency of Coughing and Sneezing Episodes in Finisher Pigs on a Farm Free of Respiratory Disease

Inappropriate environmental conditions in pig buildings are detrimental for both pig and farm-staff health and welfare. With ongoing technological developments, a variety of sensor technology is available and can be used to measure environmental conditions such as air temperature, relative humidity, and ammonia and dust concentrations in real time. Moreover, a tool was recently developed to give farmers an objective assessment of pigs' respiratory health by continuously measuring coughing in finisher pigs. This study assessed baseline levels of coughing on a farm free of respiratory disease, and aimed to identify relationships between environmental conditions and coughing frequency in pigs. Six replicates were conducted. Coughing levels in healthy pigs were overall low, and coughing frequency can be predicted by environmental conditions such as high ammonia concentrations and high ventilation rates. Results of this study can be used as guidelines to determine normal coughing levels in healthy pigs, and to calibrate the alarm systems of tools that measure coughing frequency, such as the cough monitor used in this study. The collection and amalgamation of data from a variety of sources related to health, welfare, and performance are important in order to improve the efficiency and sustainability of the pig industry. This study aimed to assess baseline levels of coughing on a farm free of respiratory disease, and to identify relationships between environmental conditions and coughing frequency in finisher pigs. Six replicates were conducted (690 pigs in total). A cross-correlation analysis was performed and lags of the predictor variables were carried forward for multivariable regression analysis when significant and showing r > 0.25. Results show that coughing frequency was overall low. In the first replicate, coughing was best predicted by exposure to higher ammonia concentrations that occurred with a lag of 1, 7, and 15 days (p = 0.003, p = 0.001, and p −0.70). In conclusion, guidelines on coughing levels in healthy pigs and calibration of the alarm systems of tools that measure coughing frequency can be extrapolated from this study. Environmental risk factors are associated with the respiratory health of finisher pigs

Effect of enzyme supplements on macronutrient digestibility by healthy adult dogs

Some enzyme supplement products claim benefits for healthy dogs to compensate for alleged suboptimal production of endogenous enzymes and the loss of enzymes in commercial pet foods secondary to processing. The objective of the current study was to determine macronutrient and energy digestibility by healthy adult dogs fed a commercial maintenance diet with or without supplementation with plant- and animal-origin enzyme products at the dosage recommended by their respective manufacturers. A group of fourteen healthy neutered adult Beagle dogs (average age 8 years) was divided into two equal groups and fed the basal diet alone and then with either the plant- or animal-origin enzyme supplement in three consecutive 10-d periods; the treatment groups received the opposite enzyme supplement in the third period. Digestibility in each period was performed by the total faecal collection method. Serum trypsin-like immunoreactivity (TLI) was measured at the end of each trial. Data were analysed by repeated measures and the α level of significance was set at 0·05. There were no differences in energy and nutrient digestibility between enzyme treatments. When comparing basal with enzyme supplementation, fat digestibility was higher for the basal diet compared with the animal-origin enzyme treatment, which could be a period effect and was not biologically significant (94·7 v. 93·5 %). Serum TLI was not affected by supplementation with either enzyme product. Exogenous enzyme supplementation did not significantly increase digestibility of a typical commercial dry diet in healthy adult dogs and routine use of such products is not recommended