Regulation of Consumer Credit in Polish Law

The purpose of the paper is to present the most important Polish regulations concerning consumer credits. They are contained in the Act on Consumer Credit which was adopted on 20th July 2001. Its aim was to approximate Polish law with the EU requirements predicted in the Council Directive 87/102/EEC of 22 December 1986 on consumer credit. As a result the Polish legislator regulates the most important aspects of such credit agreements. First of all, the credit agreement is defined. This definition is quite wide – “credit agreement means an agreement whereby a creditor grants or promises to grant to a consumer a credit in any form”. However, it is narrowed by the list of exceptions which are discussed in the paper. Secondly, the form and content of credit agreements are regulated (with special care of the questions of total credit costs and real annual percentage rate). Thirdly, consumers are protected in relation to bills of exchange and cheques and also in the case of the assignment of the creditors rights under a credit agreement to a third person. Fourthly, the Act predicts consumer rights to discharge his obligations under a credit agreement before the time fixed by it and to withdraw from the agreement. Finally, the provisions of the Act are binding on the creditor and he cannot exclude or limit consumer rights in the agreement. One the whole it can be said that Polish consumers are quite well protected against the unfair practices of different creditors. Now, everything depends on their readiness to use their rights as creditors can try to diminish the role of the provisions of the Act.consumer credit, credit agreement, total costs of the credit, real annual percentage rate, consumer rights to withdraw from the agreement and to discharge his obligations under a credit agreement before the time fixed by it

Bezpośredni skutek ogólnej zasady niedyskryminacji w sporach dotyczących dziedzin objętych prawem Unii Europejskiej

The article concentrates on a fundamental issue related to the effect of the EU non-discrimination principle. The preliminary research assumption was that the main purpose of extending the scope of its effectiveness, which can be observed in the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice, is primarily the wish to protect victims of discrimination, and only then to eliminate the situation in which discriminating entities avoid responsibility in this respect. It is also worth considering the consequences of the concept adopted in the case-law, namely that the EU non-discrimination principle has both vertical and horizontal direct effects. As a result, the first part of the article presents the development of the jurisprudence concerning the direct effect of the non-discrimination principle. Then the groundbreaking ruling in the case of Cresco Investigation GmbH (C-193/17) is discussed in detail. Finally, the analysis covers the reasons, scope and possible effects of the approach according to which the EU non-discrimination principle can be invoked directly in national courtsalso in the context of disputes between private parties. The final conclusions indicate possible further development trends in terms of the direct effect of the EU non-discrimination principle.Artykuł koncentruje się na zasadniczej kwestii związanej ze skutkiem, jaki wywołuje unijna zasada niedyskryminacji. Za wstępne założenie badawcze uznano, że głównym celem rozszerzania zakresu jej skuteczności, z czym mamy do czynienia w orzecznictwie Trybunału Sprawiedliwości, jest przede wszystkim chęć ochrony ofiar dyskryminacji, a dopiero w następnej kolejności eliminacja sytuacji, w której podmioty dyskryminujące unikają odpowiedzialności z tego tytułu. Warto się ponadto zastanowić, jakie mogą być konsekwencje przyjętej w orzecznictwie koncepcji, iż tytułowa zasada wywołuje bezpośrednie skutki zarówno wertykalne, jak i horyzontalne. W rezultacie w pierwszej części artykułu przedstawiono rozwój orzecznictwa dotyczącego bezpośredniego skutku zasady niedyskryminacji. Następnie szczegółowo omówiono przełomowe w tym zakresie rozstrzygnięcie w sprawie Cresco Investigation GmbH (C-193/17). Wreszcie analizie poddano przyczyny, zakres oraz możliwe skutki podejścia, zgodnie z którym na unijną zasadę niedyskryminacji można się powołać wprost przed sądami krajowymi również w kontekście sporów między podmiotami prywatnymi. Natomiast we wnioskach końcowych wskazano ewentualne dalsze tendencje rozwojowe w zakresie bezpośredniej skuteczności unijnej zasady niedyskryminacji. &nbsp

Accessibility for persons with disabilities as an important element of economic and social development : the European Union case

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to present the issue of accessibility for persons with disabilities as an important element of sustainable development, taking into account the activities of the European Union (EU) in this area. Design/Methodology/Approach: The article is based on an approach according to which sustainable development focuses on the quality of life of a human being. The question arises how the EU refers to these problems in its internal and external policies. Therefore, after the analysis of the UN general documents on sustainable development and accessibility for persons with disabilities, the EU programmes, acts and concrete actions concerning these issues are presented and commented on. This legal analysis is supported by critical analysis of literature and available statistical data. Findings: Ensuring access to goods and services for persons with disabilities is vital for sustainable development as one of its main objectives is to improve the quality of life of all human beings. This issue is taken into account both in the UN and EU documents and is important for both economic and social sustainability. Practical implications: The results are of major importance to governments formulating their programmes on accessibility. They should consider the important role of accessibility within the scope of actions undertaken for social and economic development. Policy makers should also take into account the main challenges that ensuring access to goods and services for persons with disabilities poses in relation to architecture, transport, education, digitalisation, health, culture etc. Originality/value: The article is based on a critical analysis of documents and literature. As a result, it indicates strong and weak points in the implementation of accessibility goals in the frame of sustainable development policy. Moreover, the last part of the article presents solutions indispensable for ensuring access to goods and services for persons with disabilities, which may contribute to the development of good practices in this area.peer-reviewe

The Right of a Child to Contact Relatives in Cross-Border Situations – Comments Based on EU Legal Regulations and the Case Law of the CJEU

The article presents EU legal regulations and decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) relating to one of the most important rights of children, which is their right to direct contact with their parents and other people close to them. Difficulties may be encountered in crossborder msituations when the child moves to another Member State or to a third country. In the first case, EU regulations apply, in particular Art. 24 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Council Regulation 2019/1111. They are complemented by the case law of the CJEU, which interprets the terms they contain, e.g. the right to personal contact with the child. Its decisions recognise the best interests of the child as an overriding principle. At the same time, the Court tries to adapt existing EU legal provisions to social realities related not only to increased mobility, but also to changes in the structure of the family itself (patchwork families, single-parent families, etc.)[email protected] Maliszewska-Nienartowicz – profesor zwyczajny, kierownik Katedry Studiów Europejskich na Wydziale Nauk o Polityce i Bezpieczeństwie Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu, Polska, członek Kolegium Redakcyjnego Europejskiego Przeglądu Sądowego.Justyna Maliszewska-Nienartowicz – Professor, Head of the Department of European Studies at the Faculty of Political and Security Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland, Member of the Editorial Board of the European Judicial Review.Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu, PolskaAndrzejewski M., Application of the Clause of the Good of the Child: Reflections Inspired by the Decision of the Supreme Court on the Creation of Foster Families, „Studia Iuridica Lublinensia” 2021, t. 30, nr 5.Bagan-Kurluta K., Dobro dziecka w sprawach o uprowadzenie dziecka za granicę. Zmiany w prawie i ich spodziewane skutki, „Problemy Prawa Prywatnego Międzynarodowego” 2019, t. 25.Bobrzyńska O., Miejsce zwykłego pobytu dziecka – uwagi na tle wyroków Trybunału Sprawiedliwości Unii Europejskiej z dnia 28 czerwca 2018 r. (C-512/17) oraz z dnia 17 października 2018 r. (C-393/18 PPU), „Problemy Prawa Prywatnego Międzynarodowego” 2020, t. 27.Bobrzyńska O., Nowa unijna regulacja spraw małżeńskich i rodzinnych – rozporządzenie Rady (UE) 2019/1111, „Kwartalnik Prawa Prywatnego” 2020, nr 3.Gołaczyński J. (red.), Jurysdykcja, uznawanie i wykonywanie orzeczeń w sprawach małżeńskich i w sprawach dotyczących odpowiedzialności rodzicielskiej oraz w sprawie uprowadzenia dziecka za granicę. Komentarz do Rozporządzenia Rady UE 2019/1111, Warszawa 2022.Gray J., Schrama W., Lazić V., Scope and Definitions, (w:) Regulation Brussels II bis. Guide for Application, 2018.Karta Praw Podstawowych UE (Dz.Urz. UE C 326, 26.10.2012, s. 391–407).Klaasen M., Rodrigues P., The Best Interests of the Child in EU Family Reunification Law: A Plea for More Guidance on the Role of Article 24 (2) Charter, „European Journal of Migration and Law” 2017, t. 19.Konwencja ONZ o prawach dziecka z dnia 20 listopada 1989 r. (Dz.U. z 1991 r. Nr 120, poz. 526).Krugera T., Samyn L., Brussels II bis: successes and suggested improvements, „Journal of Private International Law” 2016, nr 1.Lazić V., Schrama W., Enforcement of the Decisions on the Rights of Access and Return Orders issued by the Courts of Child’s Habitual Residence Immediately before a Wrongful Removal or Retention – Articles 40–45 and 47 and Other Provisions Applicable to the Enforcement – Articles 48–52, (w:) Regulation Brussels II bis. Guide for Application, 2018.Lis W., Enforcement of the Obligation to Maintain Contact with a Child, „Bialystok Legal Studies” 2021, t. 26, nr 5 (Special Issue).Majkowska-Szulc S., Tomaszewska M., Art. 24, (w:) A. Wróbel (red.), Karta Praw Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej. Komentarz, Warszawa 2020.Maliszewska-Nienartowicz J., Europejskie prawo procesowe cywilne, (w:) A. Wróbel (red.), Stosowanie prawa Unii Europejskiej przez sądy, Warszawa 2010.Martins A., Alcarva B., Marques D., Children in Post-Modern Families: the Right of Children to Have Contact with Attachment Figures, Lisbon 2017.Mostowik P., Władza rodzicielska i opieka nad dzieckiem w prawie prywatnym międzynarodowym, Kraków 2014.Pilich M., Łącznik zwykłego pobytu dziecka w unijnym międzynarodowym prawie rodzinnym – wprowadzenie i wyrok Trybunału Sprawiedliwości z 28.06.2018 r., C-512/17, Postępowanie zainicjowane przez HR, „Europejski Przegląd Sądowy” 2021, nr 9.Rozporządzenie Rady nr 2019/1111 z dnia 25 czerwca 2019 r. w sprawie jurysdykcji, uznawania i wykonywania orzeczeń w sprawach małżeńskich i w sprawach dotyczących odpowiedzialności rodzicielskiej oraz w sprawie uprowadzenia dziecka za granicę (wersja przekształcona) (Dz. Urz. UE L 178, 2.7.2019, s. 1–115).Rozporządzenie Rady nr 2201/2003 z dnia 27 listopada 2003 r. dotyczące jurysdykcji oraz uznawania i wykonywania orzeczeń w sprawach małżeńskich oraz w sprawach dotyczących odpowiedzialności rodzicielskiej, uchylające rozporządzenie (WE) nr 1347/2000 (Bruksela II bis) (Dz. Urz. L 338, 23.12.2003, s. 1–29).Stojanowska W., Dobro dziecka w aspekcie sprawowanej nad nim władzy rodzicielskiej, „Studia nad Rodziną” 2000, nr 1 (6).Traktat o Unii Europejskiej (Dz. Urz. UE C 326, 26.10.2012, s. 1–390).Wyrok TS z dnia 5 października 2010 r., C-400/10 PPU, J. McB. przeciwko L. E., ECLI:EU:C:2010:582.Wyrok TS z dnia 9 września 2015 r., C-4/14, Christophe Bohez przeciwko Ingrid Wiertz, ECLI: EU:C:2015:563.Wyrok TS z dnia 8 czerwca 2017 r., C-111/17, OL przeciwko PQ, ECLI:EU:C:2017:436.Wyrok TS z dnia 31 maja 2018 r., C-335/17, Neli Valcheva przeciwko Georgiosowi Babanarakisowi, ECLI: EU:C:2018:359.Wyrok TS z dnia 24 marca 2021 r., C-603/20, SS przeciwko MCP, ECLI:EU:C:2021:231.Wyrok TS z dnia 12 maja 2022 r., C-644/20, W.J przeciwko L.J. i J.J., ECLI:EU:C:2022:371.27317719

Proporcjonalność jako zasada wyznaczająca granice działania Wspólnoty Europejskiej

"Zasada proporcjonalności została rozwinięta w orzecznictwie Europejskiego Trybunału Sprawiedliwości (dalej: Trybunału) jako odpowiedź na potrzeby wspólnotowego porządku prawnego. W istocie nie było bowiem takiej normy wspólnotowej, która pozwoliłaby badać legalność działań legislacyjnych i administracyjnych instytucji Wspólnot. Należy przy tym zauważyć, że zakres zastosowania zasady proporcjonalności nie ogranicza się jedynie do środków podejmowanych przez instytucje wspólnotowe, ale służy również ocenie działań państw członkowskich w sytuacji, gdy ograniczają one podstawowe swobody rynku wewnętrznego. Ta ważna funkcja proporcjonalności pozostanie jednak poza obszarem niniejszego opracowania z uwagi na jego ograniczony zakres tematyczny."(...

Objective Justifi cation as an Important Element of Indirect Discrimination – Refl ections on the Basis of the Case-Law of the Court of Justice

The article concentrates on the case-law of the Court of Justice concerning indirect discrimination, in particular one of its elements called objective justification. It should be noticed that this form of discrimination refers to neutral criteria which are not forbidden as such but their application puts the group of persons protected in a disadvantageous position. Such indirectly discriminatory measures can be justified by a legitimate aim but the means used to achieve it should be appropriate and necessary. These legitimate aims cannot be connected with any discrimination based on the forbidden criterion e.g. nationality, sex, age, disability etc. According to the case-law of the Court of Justice their list is not closed. However, legitimate aims can be divided into three groups: those that are related to the public interest and those that refer to the job or the company as a whole. It is interesting to note that the Court of Justice allows employers or service providers to refer to economic factors which is criticised by the doctrine of European Law. It is suggested that it should limit the list of aims which may justify indirect discrimination. Wide discretion in this regard may lead to weakening of the effectiveness of the prohibition of indirect discrimination. Another important element of this form of discrimination is proportionality of the measures applied to achieve a legitimate aim. The Court of Justice has not always applied the same proportionality test in relation to the measures undertaken by the Member States and by employers or service providers. However, the Court has changed its approach recently and has started to assess the proportionality of the measure in a similar way. On the whole it should be underlined that the Court of Justice plays a decisive role in the practical application of indirect discrimination. It can contribute to strengthening of the effectiveness of its prohibition e.g. by taking into account proportionality sensu stricto in the frames of objective justification and investigating whether there is an excessive restriction of individual rights in relation to the legitimate aim

THE PRINCIPLE OF ENHANCED COOPERATION IN COMMUNITY LAW: FROM THE AMSTERDAM TREATY TO THE DRAFT OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL TREATY

The paper focuses on the principle of enhanced cooperation in the European Union law. The idea of such cooperation arose in the seventies o f XX century. However, it was regulated as late as in 1997 in the Amsterdam Treaty under the influence o f a dangerous practice of enhancing cooperation in the area o f free movement o f persons (Schengen Conventions). Its regulation was changed in the Niece Treaty as there was a fear that new Member States could obstruct the development o f European integration. The next phase in the development o f the principle of enhanced cooperation is connected with the draft of the Constitutional Treaty. It has not entered into force yet and we still do not know i f it will. However, there is no doubt that its regulations show the current attitude o f the Member States to the principle of enhanced cooperation. Thus, it should be noticed that they do not predict big changes as far as the idea of enhanced cooperation is concerned, in particular its conditions are not modified. Only the procedure of its establishment is simplified. It should be regretted that the Member States have not taken the opportunity to introduce changes which would make the process o f establishment of enhanced cooperation more difficult (would resign of the possibility to establish it by the minority of the states) and which would make easier to join the existing enhanced cooperation (by technical and financial support for the states that do participate in it)

What Rule of Law for the European Union? – Tracing the Approaches of the EU Institutions

Although the rule of law is a normative notion, it requires a multidimensional approach. It speaks to important issues of law and politics, and its respect is essential for both legal and social security. It can be observed within the European Union (EU) where the issue of respect for the rule of law by its Member States has gained particular importance. The main goal of our study is to contribute to the academic discourse concerning the EU rule of law. The analysis particularly considers the approaches adopted by the EU institutions to the definition of this concept. Consequently, the first part of the article concentrates on difficulties in defining the rule of law. The second part presents the evolution of the Court of Justice approach toward this concept. The next part contains the analysis of the attitudes presented by other EU institutions in their documents. In the conclusions, it is underlined that although the approaches of the EU institutions towards the rule of have evolved, and they have tried to define it and indicate its main components, certain issues require clarification, e.g., the relations of the rule of law with other values