Planning processes for transport and ecological infrastructures in Poland - actors’ attitudes and conflict

Biodiversity conservation is an important contemporary issue on global, EU and national policy agendas. However, in the face of human economic development, the important question is how to protect, maintain and restore biodiversity, without compromising economic and social dimensions of sustainability. Two sectors that can to a large extent influence biodiversity are forestry and road infrastructure development. Forestry is a sector very important for biodiversity conservation, since a large amount of protected and threatened species resides in forest ecosystems and many natural processes crucial for biodiversity occur in the forest. In addition, forests and woodlands form a network of habitats for many area-demanding species. Due to intensive forest management and fragmentation of forest and woodlands many elements of biodiversity are threatened, including species, habitats and processes. Road infrastructure development is another process that can negatively influence biodiversity. A growing network of transport infrastructure without doubt affects the functionality of the forest habitat networks. Negative effects include traffic mortality due to road collisions and barrier effect for individuals caused by high traffic volume, noise, wide roads and fencing. Cumulative effects of the infrastructure development can also lead to a loss of different elements of biodiversity at the landscape scale. Poland, with a legacy of less intensive forest management and still without a well-developed road infrastructure, is fortunate in terms of biodiversity maintenance. Due to economic underdevelopment of some regions of the country, Poland is rich in natural values including specialized species, functional habitat networks and ecological processes. However, after entering the European Union, Poland has started a process of rapid economic development, mainly with the help of EU funding. Enhancing road infrastructure is presently a key issue of economic development in this country. Dramatic growth in the amount of new roads can have large scale consequences for the biodiversity of the country, and can even influence biodiversity at the European scale. Policies aiming at biodiversity maintenance underline the need for implementing sustainability ideas in the planning and management for biodiversity. Traditionally, economic, environmental and social pillars of sustainability are identified. To be able to balance these three dimensions in the efforts for biodiversity conservation, there is a need to incorporate social dimensions in the nature science research concerning biodiversity. Especially, consideration of local attitudes is necessary in planning for biodiversity conservation. The aim of this thesis is to examine actors’ attitudes and underlying values in two situations of conflict related to biodiversity conservation in Poland. One case concerns forest management in a biodiversity hot-spot, Białowieża forest and the other is about a development of a controversial road project of Augustów bypass. The results show that differences in attitudes may have various sources. The knowledge possessed by actors, their values, as well as scale at which they perceived biodiversity issues were identified as the main reasons for different attitudes. It was observed that in general, the actors whose attitudes were more “ecologically oriented” had to a large extent a cognitive view, that is their attitudes were mainly based on cognition (ecological knowledge) while “socially” or “economically oriented” actors’ attitudes were more connected to emotions. In addition to differing attitudes, lack of trust was recognized in both cases as a factor escalating the conflict. The results showed also that legal issues are crucial to consider when biodiversity conservation is at stake. The results may have implications for the practical biodiversity conservation, since they show that both learning and legal incentives would be beneficial for the biodiversity conservation in controversial planning cases. This calls for the need for neutral forum for efficient public participation, communication and trust building between the actors and learning about important issue

Using a Swedish forest biodiversity assessment under Polish conditions

During last 2000 years dramatic changes have occurred in Europe and many features of old forest have been lost or declined. The primal goal of many plantations in Europe has been for many decades to provide wood and not much attention was paid to other aspects of forestry. The changes in European forests and introduction of intensive plantations with clear-cuts had tremendous impact on biodiversity. During the early 1990s concern for the loss of biodiversity was introduced on the political agenda and the global processes promoting restoration and maintenance of forest biodiversity started. The term sustainable forest management has become popular and new guidelines for multiple-use forest management were created. One of the major goals of sustainable forestry is restoration and maintenance of high biodiversity and the management activities should be adjusted to the needs of nature conservation. Throughout the development of international policy focused on biodiversity, the need for tools for assessment and evaluation of forest diversity has arisen. Different assessment methods have been elaborated and tested. One of the biodiversity assessment method developed and used in Sweden is the "Assessment of Forest Biodiversity Potential" (Drakenberg and Lindhe, 1999), here called "The Swedish assessment". It is a method of indirect assessment of biodiversity, which is based on disturbance regimes in the forest. The main objective of this work was to investigate if the Swedish assessment could be used in Poland and if this kind of assessment is needed in Polish forestry. The literature review was conducted to find background information on biodiversity and methods of its assessments in Europe, forests in Poland and Sweden and forestry and nature conservation in Poland. The Swedish assessment was used during the field work in Poland. The Swedish assessment was applied in 25 stands in three Polish national parks (Drawa, Kampinos and Pieniny). Poland and Sweden are situated in the same geographical region and have similar climatic conditions, apart from the northern part of Sweden. Both countries are located in the same vegetation zones (apart from the Boreal zone that covers northern part of Sweden). They are characterised by the same types of forests and the same disturbance regimes, however in different proportions. All the main forest types occurring in Poland and Sweden could be classified into one of the six forest categories of the Swedish assessment. Therefore the assessment can be used in both countries. Nevertheless, some adjustments are needed for the Polish version of the assessment. There is no regular assessment of biodiversity potential of forest areas in Poland. The new protection areas can be created when some organisation, institution or private person report area that they consider as worth of being protected. Before, a detailed documentation describing values of the area must be prepared. No system of assessment of the biodiversity potential similar to the Swedish assessment was found in Poland. All evaluations of the values of forest areas are based on the descriptions of the stands. The author believes that the Swedish assessment could be a useful tool of selection of valuable areas in the managed forests. It could be included into programs of nature conservation in forest districts. The assessment could also be an indirect tool of management and an education tool for foresters. It could also be a help in selecting NATURA 2000 areas. The author suggests a step-wise introduction of the assessment in Poland, starting with workshops introducing the method and continuing with a project of implementation of the assessment in the whole country. Along the way more research on the use of the Swedish assessment in Poland should be carried out. Some adjustments are needed if the Swedish assessment is to be used in Poland. Some of the investigated stands were out of the scope of the assessment. Probably new forest categories would have to be created for Polish conditions (for example fir dominated stands). Fire is not a main disturbance regime in Poland, therefore some questions in the Swedish assessment concerning fire are not relevant. The author also suggests that questions in the assessment should be different for lowland and mountain stands. The stands chosen for the assessment had high conservation values. The assessment carried out in the stands also gave a high score to all the stands. This confirms that the assessment could be used in Polish high value forests. There were differences between scoring in various forest categories. For example 14 – 15 points means high value in the F category (fire adapted pioneer tree forests, usually with pine), whereas in W category (forests influenced by water, usually with alder) 18 – 20 points means high value of the forest. In general, the lower score in particular categories, the lower the age of the stand. It is understandable, since many features crucial for biodiversity occur only in older stands. The most common features in the investigated stands were features from the "dead wood" group. This result is surprising, since, according to Polish research, dead wood is missing in Polish national parks. Only three out of 23 national parks were chosen and 25 stands were investigated, therefore results may not be representative for the whole Poland, however they can give some insight into features common in Polish national parks

Cycling in Warsaw, Poland - Perceived enablers and barriers according to cyclists and non-cyclists.

Cycling in urban environments provides many benefits to people. However, planning of cycling infrastructures in large cities faces numerous challenges and requires better understanding of both the factors enabling cycling as well as barriers to it, determined by particular local context. While there is a growing body of research that tackle the bike transport related questions in Western Europe and the USA, there is relatively little research on that in Central Eastern Europe (CEE), in post-communist countries. In this study we used qualitative and quantitative methods to explore urban cyclists and non-cyclists opinions about the cycling, the perceived problems and obstacles, and perception of the on-going changes in bicycle transportation system in Warsaw, Poland. Although many people see potential advantages of cycling, it is mostly perceived as a leisure time activity. Those who do utilitarian cycling are more acutely aware of the benefits, such as rapidity and flexibility of this mean of transport. The main perceived barriers are linked to lack of good cycling infrastructure in the city, the feeling of insecurity linked to the behaviour of drivers, and to maintenance during winter. In conclusion, our research highlights both the opportunities and challenges linked to the development of improved cycle transportation system, suggesting the need for a range of policies, from the infrastructure improvements and comprehensive planning of the whole transportation system, to improving the driving culture that would support feeling of security of the cyclists

Operationalisation of ecological compensation - Obstacles and ways forward

Ecological compensation (EC) has been proposed as an important tool for stopping the loss of biodiversity and natural values. However, there are few studies on its actual operationalisation and there is high uncertainty about how it should be designed and implemented to be an effective way of performing nature conservation. In this study we focus on ecological compensation in Sweden, a country where it is in the process of being implemented more broadly. Using interviews and a workshop we investigate how the work with the implementation is carried out and what challenges exist. The results show that implementation of EC is at an early stage of development and there are many practical obstacles, linked to both legislation and routines in the planning processes. There is a lack of holistic perspective and large-scale thinking, a quite strong focus on a small number of individual species, and an overall attitude that anything is better than nothing, all of which can have negative consequences for biodiversity conservation overall. Based on the results we discuss the need for better integration of EC into the entire decision-making process and for a holistic approach to preservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services, by increasing the focus on landscape perspective and considering delays in compensation outcomes. There is also a need for a national level standard for EC, making good and worse examples of compensation measures available and systematic monitoring of EC projects. Finally, a spatially explicit database to document all EC areas should be introduced both to ensure consistency in protection from future development plans and to enable long-term monitoring of EC outcomes

Landscape perception: linking physical monitoring data to perceived landscape properties

Changes in the landscape affect not only people's well-being but also how people perceive and use the landscape. An increasing number of policies have highlighted the importance of conserving a landscape's recreational and aesthetical values. This study develops and evaluates a model that links people's perceptions of a mountain landscape to physical monitoring data. Using a questionnaire, we revealed how respondents working with the Swedish mountains characterise the Magnificent Mountain landscape (as defined by Swedish policy objectives) and translated these characteristics into data from the National Inventory of Landscapes in Sweden (NILS). We found 14 potential indicators that could be derived from the existing NILS physical monitoring data and which could be used to monitor changes in the landscape values as perceived by people. Based on the results, we suggest how to simultaneously utilise field sampling of physical data and field photos to provide temporal information about landscape perception

A Delphi-study to identify drivers of future angling participation in five Nordic countries

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International Trends and Practices on Sustainability Reporting in Higher Education Institutions

Sustainability reports are regarded as important tools in offering information about the environmental, social, economic, and institutional performance of an institution, and in demonstrating a commitment to matters related to sustainable development. But even though sustainability reporting has been used by a variety of higher education institutions to date, it is not as widely practiced as it should be. To further investigate this topic, a twofold approach was used: a study focusing on sustainability reporting approaches deployed in a sample of 30 universities across a set of countries; and a survey with a sample of 72 universities from different global regions to assess the extent to which they are deploying sustainability reporting as part of their activities. The scientific value of the paper resides in the fact that it offers a comprehensive overview of the subject matter of sustainability reporting, and how higher education institutions handle it. It also outlines the efforts in developing these documents which may catalyse further progress in this key area

Role of planners and public participation in planning for biodiversity

The European Union (EU) is committed to conserving biodiversity, both in terms of natural and cultural legacies, and also to limiting biodiversity loss. Relevant policies have underlined the importance of considering ecological and social issues, as well as the complex relations between the two spheres in conservation of biodiversity. These policies have clear implications for all sectors responsible for planning for biodiversity conservation. In order to be consistent with international legislation, it is necessary to move beyond protected areas and include biodiversity conservation considerations in planning activities of various sectors, and also to involve relevant stakeholders in the planning process. This is in line with the landscape approach to planning that has recently been advocated in research and practical planning. The landscape approach has a holistic perspective that encompasses both ecological and social considerations. This thesis focuses on the implementation of policies regarding biodiversity conservation and public participation; that is, the ecological and social dimensions of spatial planning in landscapes. In particular, I examine the role of people, such as planners implementing policies and other stakeholders who might influence biodiversity conservation. The studies within this thesis concern Poland and Sweden, and three sectors: regional, road and forestry planning. The thesis is comprised of four papers. Paper I deals with planners working to implement biodiversity and public participation policies. Paper II concentrates on the issues of stakeholder involvement in the Environmental Impact Assessment of road planning. Paper III investigates a specific conflict that influenced the conservation of biodiversity in an important biodiversity hotspot. Paper IV is a conceptual paper that discusses the tools used to integrate ecological and social dimensions when implementing the European Landscape Convention. The studies included in this thesis reveal that successfully implementing biodiversity conservation and public participation policies may require more than just ecological knowledge about how biodiversity should be maintained, and more than just formal guidelines regarding how the public should be treated in the planning process. In addition, the role of people who may influence the planning and decision making processes is crucial. Accordingly, there is a need for two key developments. Firstly, planners and the general public should be properly educated about conservation-related issues. Secondly, various incentives should be introduced that influence the behaviour and, in the longer term, the attitudes of the people who may affect biodiversity

Stakeholder Perspectives on Blue Mussel Farming to Mitigate Baltic Sea Eutrophication

Here, we present an application of systems thinking to controlling Baltic Sea eutrophication-a wicked environmental problem characterized by multiple stakeholder perspectives and no single, agreed upon solution. The Baltic Sea is one of the most polluted waterbodies in the world. More than 40 years of land-based (linear) measures have failed to adequately control eutrophication, yet internal (circular) measures are rarely used. Farming native blue mussels for nutrient capture has been proposed as one measure for eutrophication control, but the relevant stakeholders disagree as to its environmental, social and economic benefits. Here, we present the views of four Swedish stakeholder groups-academics, entrepreneurs, municipal government employees and representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs)-on the sustainability of native blue mussel farming, a circular measure for eutrophication control. Using semi-structured interviews, we elicited stakeholder perspectives on the environmental, economic and social dimensions of blue mussel farming. The interviewees generally agreed that blue mussel farming is not currently economically sustainable, but that it can contribute to the social sustainability of coastal regions. Academics were skeptical of the environmental benefits, claiming that farms could reinforce eutrophication, whereas the remaining stakeholder groups argued for its potential to mitigate eutrophication. In a roundtable discussion conducted one year after the original interviews, all stakeholder groups agreed that blue mussel farming alone will not fix Baltic Sea eutrophication, but can be part of the solution together with land-based measures. All groups also agreed on the need for cautious upscaling, continuous environmental monitoring and constant improvement if blue mussel farms are to be part of a "toolkit" for eutrophication control. Our results highlight the fact that wicked environmental problems can be addressed when multiple stakeholder groups with differing perspectives have the opportunity to achieve consensus through dialog