The Challenge of the Nitrate Directive to Acceding Countries: A Comparative Analysis of Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia

Agricultural and Food Policy,

Simultaneous precise editing of multiple genes in human cells

Abstract. When double-strand breaks are introduced in a genome by CRISPR they are repaired either by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), which often results i

Internationalized armed conflicts in international law

In a world shaped by the simultaneous forces of globalization and fragmentation, very few armed conflicts remain isolated from any foreign involvement and confined to the territory of one State. On the contrary, many begin as internal conflicts that gradually acquire international characteristics of varying degree and nature. Yet, the law of armed conflict forces each such conflict into one of two legal categories: it must either be a non-international, or an international armed conflict. Accordingly, the prevailing approach in the literature is to examine what type of conflict, if any, corresponds to a certain situation in reality at a given time. In contrast, this thesis opts for a dynamic approach, focussing on the combination of factors that transform a prima facie non-international armed conflict into an international armed conflict. It argues that four such modalities of internationalization have emerged thus far: (1) outside intervention; (2) State dissolution; (3) wars of national liberation; and (4) relative internationalization by way of recognition of belligerency, unilateral declarations, or special agreements. Since some situations feature more than two conflict parties, the thesis puts forward an autonomy-based interpretive model, which enables to determine whether such situations should be seen as a single internationalized armed conflict or a number of independent international and non-international armed conflicts. On the basis of this comprehensive map of conflict internationalization, the thesis turns to the effects brought about by this process. It analyses two areas of the law of armed conflict considered to be regulated differently in the two respective types of conflict, namely matters of combatant status and belligerent occupation. It argues that fighters belonging to non-State armed groups participating in internationalized armed conflicts are in principle eligible for combatant status and it proposes an interpretive model for the determination whether they in fact meet the relevant criteria in practice. Finally, the thesis argues in favour of the applicability of the law of belligerent occupation to internationalized armed conflicts. To substantiate this claim, it delineates the temporal, geographical, and personal scope of the law of occupation in such conflicts. In its totality, the thesis analyses the meaning, process, and effects of conflict internationalization and on this basis argues for a particular interpretation of the concept of internationalized armed conflict in international law

“Enemy controlled battlespace”: the contemporary meaning and purpose of additional protocol I’s Article 44(3) exception

The contemporary propensity for, and risk of, armed conflict taking place among the civilian population has cast a new light on a number of the long-standing challenges to the application of international humanitarian law (IHL) during modern warfare. One is the determination of combatant status and, more specifically, the question when the general requirement for the combatants to distinguish themselves from the civilian population may exceptionally be attenuated. In order to answer that question, the present Article re-examines Additional Protocol I’s oft-reviled Article 44(3) and adopts an interpretation thereof that better comports with the object and purpose of the provision than those previously in vogue. To lay the foundation for assessing the meaning of the key terms in the provision, the Article first introduces IHL’s extant standards for combatancy. The piece then turns to the travaux préparatoires of Article 44(3). This analysis exposes the limitations of relying solely on the provision’s drafting history to understand the scope of the exception. Therefore, and consistent with the interpretive approach set forth in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the Article then considers the object and purpose of Article 44(3). Armed with an understanding of this telos of the provision, the Article proffers “enemy control of battlespace” as the appropriate standard for determining situations to which the exception applies. Finally, the Article highlights a number of legal safeguards that promote the protection of the civilian population whenever the exception is applicable

Highly efficient photoanodes based on cascade structural semiconductors of Cu2Se/CdSe/TiO2: a multifaceted approach to achieving microstructural and compositional control

Hydrogen produced by splitting water is receiving significant attention due to the rising global energy demand and growing climate concerns. The photocatalytic decomposition of water converts solar energy into clean hydrogen, and may help mitigate the crisis of fossil fuel depletion. However, the photocatalytic hydrogen production remains challenging to obtain high and stable photoconversion efficiency. Here, we report a highly efficient photoanode based on the coaxial heterogeneous cascade structure of Cu2Se/CdSe/TiO2 synthesized via a simple room-temperature and low-cost electrochemical deposition method. The microstructure and composition of the Cu2Se top layer are regulated and controlled by doping Cu with various amounts in different zones of the CdSe/TiO2 coaxial heterojunction and then using a simple integral annealing process. Surprisingly, a little effort made to achieve the Cu2Se top layer utilizing such doped CdSe/TiO2 exhibits a significant enhancement in photocatalytic activity. The maximum stable photocurrent density of the sample with the optimal copper zone and doping concentration has reached up to 28 mA cm−2, which can be attributed to the success in the uniform dispersion of the three-layer heterogeneous nanojunctions among the anatase nanotube wall from the top to the bottom. This results in a stepwise structure of band-edge levels in the Cu2Se/CdSe/TiO2 photoelectrode that is conducive to enhancing effectively the separation of the photogenerated electron–hole pairs

Enemy-Controlled Battlespace : The Contemporary Meaning and Purpose of Additional Protocol I\u27s Article 44(3) Exception

The contemporary propensity for, and risk of, armed conflict taking place among the civilian population has cast a new light on several long-standing challenges to the application of international humanitarian law (IHL). One is the determination of combatant status and, more specifically, the question of when the requirement for the combatants to distinguish themselves from the civilian population may exceptionally be relaxed. In addressing this question, the Article re-examines Additional Protocol I\u27s Article 44(3) and adopts an interpretation thereof that better comports with its object and purpose than those previously prevalent. After exposing the limitations of relying solely on drafting history to understand the provision\u27s exception, the object and purpose of Article 44(3) are assessed. On that basis, the authors proffer enemy control of battlespace as the appropriate standard for determining situations to which the exception applies. Finally, they highlight a number of legal safeguards that promote the protection of the civilian population whenever the exception is applicable

Iron Deficiency Anemia, Population Health and Frailty in a Modern Portuguese Skeletal Sample

INTRODUCTION Portugal underwent significant political, demographic and epidemiological transitions during the 20th century resulting in migration to urban areas with subsequent overcrowding and issues with water sanitation. This study investigates population health during these transitions and interprets results within a framework of recent history and present-day public health information. We investigate skeletal evidence for anemia (cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis) as indicators of stress and frailty-i.e., whether the lesions contribute to susceptibility for disease or increased risk of death. METHODS The presence and severity of skeletal lesions were compared against known sex and cause of death data to investigate potential heterogeneity in frailty and the relationship between lesions and risk of dying over time. Additionally, we tested for the presence of selective mortality in our data (i.e., whether or not the sample is biased for individuals with higher frailty). Our sample derives from a large, documented, modern Portuguese collection from Lisbon and is the first study of its kind using a documented collection. The collection represents primarily middle-class individuals. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Analyses indicated that porotic hyperostosis became more common and severe over time, while cribra orbitalia severity increased over time. Neither process was linked to cause of death. However, there was a significant relationship to sex; males exhibited a higher prevalence and severity of lesions and increased mortality. A Gompertz function showed decreased survivorship in early life but increased survivorship over age 60. Using comorbidities of anemia, we were unable to detect selective mortality-i.e., in our sample, lesions do not represent a sign of poor health or increased frailty and are not significantly linked with a decreased mean age-at-death. However, lesion prevalence and severity do reflect the socioeconomic processes in urban Lisbon during the 1800s and 1900s and the possibility of water-borne parasites as the contributing factor for iron deficiency anemia

Storage of spatiotemporal input sequences in dendrites of pyramidal neurons

Plastic changes in neurons are widely considered to underpin the formation and maintenance of memory. The mechanisms of induction and expression of plasticity are, therefore, crucial to our understanding of the capacity of information storage that neurons possess. Using two-photon glutamate uncaging and whole-cell electrophysiological recordings, I demonstrate that dendrites of neurons are capable of preferentially storing specific spatiotemporal sequences, and describe the physiological properties of this new form of plasticity. Such plastic changes are dependent on Ca2+ influx through NMDA receptors, which is consistent with previous reports regarding induction of potentiation. Using two-photon Ca2+ imaging, I demonstrate that spatiotemporal plasticity is a result of a distinct homogeneous spatial increase in Ca2+ influx of different spatiotemporal sequences. Using the NEURON simulation environment, I used my experimental findings to perform simulations of synaptic plasticity rules. I found that homogeneous increases in synaptic strength across the dendrite can result in the spatiotemporal plasticity that I empirically observed. Moreover, I employed a genetic optimization algorithm and parallelized simulations to show that such changes are within physiological parameters observed in cortical neurons. My PhD therefore describes a novel form of plasticity, and proposes that dendrites are capable of more extensive information storage than was previously assumed

REALISTIC MEETING SIMULATOR

A system is provided that simulates authentic presentation scenarios, whether in-person or virtual, to equip individuals with the skills and confidence needed to navigate complex interactions and challenging situations. This system allows individuals to enhance their professional effectiveness with a comprehensive approach to communication training