Bi-layer diaphragm walls : experimental and numerical analysis

Tesi per compendi de publicacionsLeakage is a widespread problem associated with the construction of diaphragm walls whenever they are erected in water-bearing ground. The aim of the present research is to develop a new type of slurry wall: the bi-layer diaphragm wall (BL), which main objective is to tackle the aforementioned problem. The method to construct it is based on an existing solution: casting a second waterproof concrete layer against the diaphragm walls. In the BL technique, the second layer is made of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) sprayed over the conventional diaphragm wall (called Mono-Layer diaphragm wall (ML) in this thesis), including a waterproof admixture. The central idea is to maximize the functional attributes of the second layer, allowing it to play a structural role in addition to the waterproofing function.The proposed methodology is based on a combination of experimental works and numerical tools. A design method for the BL walls, which is based on an uncoupled structural-section model, is proposed. The method is later used to carry out different comparisons with ML walls and an exhaustive parametric analysis of the construction processes involved in the walls construction. The experimental campaign comprised test at two levels. At element level, the structural response of walls built in a real building located in Barcelona was studied and, at section level, the bond strength between concretes of cores extracted from the abovementioned walls was measured.The model at structural level, which is based on a finite element model, was contrasted with the results obtained in the experimental walls. The sectional analysis is taken from the specialized literature. With the complete structural-section model, the BL walls are analysed. The study shows that the main flexural resistance is provided by the first layer (the conventional diaphragm wall), providing the SFRC layer a secondary flexural resistance.For the geometrical ranges of the elements considered in the thesis (35 cm to 60 cm width first layer, and 10 cm width second layer) the increase in the cross-section ultimate bending resistance when it is strengthened by the SFRC layer is between 8% and 15%. This increase allows a reduction in the steel reinforcement of the first layer (up to 7.0% of the total flexural reinforcement) and, to some extent, it also collaborates with a displacement reduction (reducing up to 7.3% of the maximum displacements). It was also found that the spraying sequence is a crucial parameter to be able to take advantage of the SFRC collaboration, and specific indications are described.Good concrete to concrete bond strength was obtained for the extracted cores. The average shear strength value measured for each age (2, 6 and 35 days) was always above 1.0 MPa for the different cases. Beyond the local test performed, a monolithic behaviour was observed at element level in the experimental walls.A similar final material consumption was observed between the BL walls and the combined consideration of a ML wall and an external waterproof system. The consideration of the technology cost entails a higher construction cost for the BL technique. However, it is still an interesting option under particular circumstances, like space limitations or if continuous maintenance costs want to be avoided in the future.In general terms it can be said that the research herein presented lay the foundation for the development of the bi-layer diaphragm wall technique, which is a promising solution for the leakage problem of diaphragm walls. Nonetheless, more studies are needed to be able to fully use these types of walls as a standard technique, e.g. a detailed cost study and sustainability analysis, debonding risk, waterproofing capability and above all more full scale experimental cases.Un problema habitual en la construcción de pantallas continuas en terrenos con presencia de agua es la existencia de filtraciones. El objetivo de esta tesis busca resolver este problema mediante el desarrollo de un nuevo tipo de pantalla: la pantalla bi-capa (BL, por sus siglas en inglés). El método para construir estos muros se basa en una solución existente: realizar una segunda capa de hormigón impermeable sobre los muros pantalla. En las pantallas BL, la segunda capa se realiza con hormigón con fibras de acero (SFRC) proyectado sobre las pantallas convencionales (llamadas ML en esta tesis) e incluyendo a su vez una adición impermeabilizante. La idea central es maximizar las funciones de la segunda capa, asignándole un rol estructural, además de la función impermeabilizante. La metodología propuesta se basa en la combinación de trabajos experimentales y herramientas numéricas. Se propone un método de diseño para las pantallas BL basado en modelos estructura-sección desacoplados. Posteriormente se utiliza este método para realizar diferentes comparaciones con pantallas ML y un análisis paramétrico exhaustivo de distintos procesos constructivos involucrados en la construcción de las pantallas BL. La campaña experimental realizada comprende dos niveles: a nivel elemento, se estudió la respuesta estructural de pantallas construidas en un edificio real ubicado en Barcelona; a nivel seccional, se midió el nivel de adherencia entre ambas capas de hormigón mediante testigos extraídos de las pantallas antes mencionadas. El modelo a nivel estructural, basado en elementos finitos, se contrastó con los resultados experimentales obtenidos. El modelo seccional se tomó de la bibliografía estudiada. Con el modelo estructura-sección completo se analizaron las pantallas BL. El estudio muestra que la principal resistencia flexional es aportada por la primera capa (el muro pantalla convencional), siendo secundario el aporte de la capa de SFRC. Para el rango de elementos considerados en esta tesis (35 cm a 60 cm de espesor de primera capa y 10 cm de segunda), el incremento de la resistencia última a flexión cuando se considera el aporte de la capa de SFRC, está entre 8% y 15%. Este incremento permite una reducción en el acero de refuerzo de la primera capa de hasta un 7.0% del total del acero de flexión y, hasta cierto punto, también colabora con una reducción en los desplazamientos (alcanzando reducciones de hasta un 7.3% del desplazamiento máximo). Se observó también que la secuencia de proyección es un factor clave a la hora de aprovechar la colaboración extra aportada por la capa de SFRC. Indicaciones específicas se describen a este respecto. Se obtuvo una buena resistencia de adherencia entre hormigones para los testigos extraídos. La resistencia media medida a cada edad (2, 6, y 35 días) estuvo siempre, para los distintos casos, por encima de 1.0 MPa. Más allá de los ensayos puntuales, se observó un comportamiento monolítico a nivel elemento para las pantallas BL experimentales. Se obtuvo un consumo final de materiales similar entre pantallas BL y la consideración conjunta de una pantalla ML más un sistema impermeabilizante externo. Considerar los costos tecnológicos conlleva un costo constructivo mayor para las pantallas BL. Sin embargo, ésta es aún una opción interesante bajo consideraciones particulares, como limitaciones del espacio subterráneo interior o si se desean evitar costos continuos de mantenimiento. En términos generales, se puede decir que la investigación aquí presentada sienta las bases para el desarrollo de la técnica de muros pantalla bi-capa, la cual es una solución prometedora para el problema de las filtraciones en pantallas. No obstante, son necesarios más estudios para poder usar plenamente este tipo de pantallas de forma habitual, e.g. estudios de sostenibilidad detallados, evaluación del riesgo de desprendimiento de la segunda capa, capacidad impermeable y, sobre todo, más ensayos experimentales a escala realPostprint (published version

Bi-layer diaphragm walls : experimental and numerical analysis

Leakage is a widespread problem associated with the construction of diaphragm walls whenever they are erected in water-bearing ground. The aim of the present research is to develop a new type of slurry wall: the bi-layer diaphragm wall (BL), which main objective is to tackle the aforementioned problem. The method to construct it is based on an existing solution: casting a second waterproof concrete layer against the diaphragm walls. In the BL technique, the second layer is made of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) sprayed over the conventional diaphragm wall (called Mono-Layer diaphragm wall (ML) in this thesis), including a waterproof admixture. The central idea is to maximize the functional attributes of the second layer, allowing it to play a structural role in addition to the waterproofing function.The proposed methodology is based on a combination of experimental works and numerical tools. A design method for the BL walls, which is based on an uncoupled structural-section model, is proposed. The method is later used to carry out different comparisons with ML walls and an exhaustive parametric analysis of the construction processes involved in the walls construction. The experimental campaign comprised test at two levels. At element level, the structural response of walls built in a real building located in Barcelona was studied and, at section level, the bond strength between concretes of cores extracted from the abovementioned walls was measured.The model at structural level, which is based on a finite element model, was contrasted with the results obtained in the experimental walls. The sectional analysis is taken from the specialized literature. With the complete structural-section model, the BL walls are analysed. The study shows that the main flexural resistance is provided by the first layer (the conventional diaphragm wall), providing the SFRC layer a secondary flexural resistance.For the geometrical ranges of the elements considered in the thesis (35 cm to 60 cm width first layer, and 10 cm width second layer) the increase in the cross-section ultimate bending resistance when it is strengthened by the SFRC layer is between 8% and 15%. This increase allows a reduction in the steel reinforcement of the first layer (up to 7.0% of the total flexural reinforcement) and, to some extent, it also collaborates with a displacement reduction (reducing up to 7.3% of the maximum displacements). It was also found that the spraying sequence is a crucial parameter to be able to take advantage of the SFRC collaboration, and specific indications are described.Good concrete to concrete bond strength was obtained for the extracted cores. The average shear strength value measured for each age (2, 6 and 35 days) was always above 1.0 MPa for the different cases. Beyond the local test performed, a monolithic behaviour was observed at element level in the experimental walls.A similar final material consumption was observed between the BL walls and the combined consideration of a ML wall and an external waterproof system. The consideration of the technology cost entails a higher construction cost for the BL technique. However, it is still an interesting option under particular circumstances, like space limitations or if continuous maintenance costs want to be avoided in the future.In general terms it can be said that the research herein presented lay the foundation for the development of the bi-layer diaphragm wall technique, which is a promising solution for the leakage problem of diaphragm walls. Nonetheless, more studies are needed to be able to fully use these types of walls as a standard technique, e.g. a detailed cost study and sustainability analysis, debonding risk, waterproofing capability and above all more full scale experimental cases.Un problema habitual en la construcción de pantallas continuas en terrenos con presencia de agua es la existencia de filtraciones. El objetivo de esta tesis busca resolver este problema mediante el desarrollo de un nuevo tipo de pantalla: la pantalla bi-capa (BL, por sus siglas en inglés). El método para construir estos muros se basa en una solución existente: realizar una segunda capa de hormigón impermeable sobre los muros pantalla. En las pantallas BL, la segunda capa se realiza con hormigón con fibras de acero (SFRC) proyectado sobre las pantallas convencionales (llamadas ML en esta tesis) e incluyendo a su vez una adición impermeabilizante. La idea central es maximizar las funciones de la segunda capa, asignándole un rol estructural, además de la función impermeabilizante. La metodología propuesta se basa en la combinación de trabajos experimentales y herramientas numéricas. Se propone un método de diseño para las pantallas BL basado en modelos estructura-sección desacoplados. Posteriormente se utiliza este método para realizar diferentes comparaciones con pantallas ML y un análisis paramétrico exhaustivo de distintos procesos constructivos involucrados en la construcción de las pantallas BL. La campaña experimental realizada comprende dos niveles: a nivel elemento, se estudió la respuesta estructural de pantallas construidas en un edificio real ubicado en Barcelona; a nivel seccional, se midió el nivel de adherencia entre ambas capas de hormigón mediante testigos extraídos de las pantallas antes mencionadas. El modelo a nivel estructural, basado en elementos finitos, se contrastó con los resultados experimentales obtenidos. El modelo seccional se tomó de la bibliografía estudiada. Con el modelo estructura-sección completo se analizaron las pantallas BL. El estudio muestra que la principal resistencia flexional es aportada por la primera capa (el muro pantalla convencional), siendo secundario el aporte de la capa de SFRC. Para el rango de elementos considerados en esta tesis (35 cm a 60 cm de espesor de primera capa y 10 cm de segunda), el incremento de la resistencia última a flexión cuando se considera el aporte de la capa de SFRC, está entre 8% y 15%. Este incremento permite una reducción en el acero de refuerzo de la primera capa de hasta un 7.0% del total del acero de flexión y, hasta cierto punto, también colabora con una reducción en los desplazamientos (alcanzando reducciones de hasta un 7.3% del desplazamiento máximo). Se observó también que la secuencia de proyección es un factor clave a la hora de aprovechar la colaboración extra aportada por la capa de SFRC. Indicaciones específicas se describen a este respecto. Se obtuvo una buena resistencia de adherencia entre hormigones para los testigos extraídos. La resistencia media medida a cada edad (2, 6, y 35 días) estuvo siempre, para los distintos casos, por encima de 1.0 MPa. Más allá de los ensayos puntuales, se observó un comportamiento monolítico a nivel elemento para las pantallas BL experimentales. Se obtuvo un consumo final de materiales similar entre pantallas BL y la consideración conjunta de una pantalla ML más un sistema impermeabilizante externo. Considerar los costos tecnológicos conlleva un costo constructivo mayor para las pantallas BL. Sin embargo, ésta es aún una opción interesante bajo consideraciones particulares, como limitaciones del espacio subterráneo interior o si se desean evitar costos continuos de mantenimiento. En términos generales, se puede decir que la investigación aquí presentada sienta las bases para el desarrollo de la técnica de muros pantalla bi-capa, la cual es una solución prometedora para el problema de las filtraciones en pantallas. No obstante, son necesarios más estudios para poder usar plenamente este tipo de pantallas de forma habitual, e.g. estudios de sostenibilidad detallados, evaluación del riesgo de desprendimiento de la segunda capa, capacidad impermeable y, sobre todo, más ensayos experimentales a escala rea

Environmental performance of rainwater harvesting strategies in Mediterranean buildings

Purpose: The rapid urbanization and the constant expansion of urban areas during the last decades have locally led to increasing water shortage. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems have the potential to be an important contributor to urban water self-sufficiency. The goal of this study was to select an environmentally optimal RWH strategy in newly constructed residential buildings linked to rainwater demand for laundry under Mediterranean climatic conditions, without accounting for water from the mains. Methods: Different strategies were environmentally assessed for the design and use of RWH infrastructures in residential apartment blocks in Mediterranean climates. The harvested rainwater was used for laundry in all strategies. These strategies accounted for (i) tank location (i.e., tank distributed over the roof and underground tank), (ii) building height considering the number of stories (i.e., 6, 9, 12, and 15), and (iii) distribution strategy (i.e., shared laundry, supply to the nearest apartments, and distribution throughout the building). The RWH systems consisted of the catchment, storage, and distribution stages, and the structural and hydraulic calculations were based on Mediterranean conditions. The quantification of the environmental performance of each strategy (e.g., CO2eq. emissions) was performed in accordance with the life cycle assessment methodology. Results and discussion: According to the environmental assessment, the tank location and distribution strategy chosen were the most important variables in the optimization of RWH systems. Roof tank strategies present fewer impacts than their underground tank equivalents because they enhance energy and material savings, and their reinforcement requirements can be accounted for within the safety factors of the building structure without the tank. Among roof tanks and depending on the height, a distribution strategy that concentrates demand in a laundry room was the preferable option, resulting in reductions from 25 to 54 % in most of the selected impact categories compared to distribution throughout the building. Conclusions: These results may set new urban planning standards for the design and construction of buildings from the perspective of sustainable water management. In this sense, a behavioral change regarding demand should be promoted in compact, dense urban settlements.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Expansions with different origins in a concrete dam with bridge over spillway

Concrete dams with expansions from different origins are rare and scarcely documented in the literature, therefore their study gains special interest. This study presents the case of a 62-year-old concrete dam with signs of deterioration due to expansive reactions. Several tests performed on the samples extracted from the dam such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy mode and petrography suggest that the expansions are due to a delayed ettringite formation and a subsequent alkali-silica reaction. Thermal and mechanical models developed in the study support this diagnosis.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Implementación del sistema de administración de riesgo crediticio (SARC) en el Fondo de Empleados Docentes Universidad del Valle (Fonvalle)

A la fecha, se espera que se produzca el decreto que obligue a que los fondos de empleados tengan que implementar el SARC y es por esto que FONVALLE tiene como uno de sus proyectos la implementación del SARC en el presente año. El propósito principal de éste trabajo de grado es lograr la elaboración de un manual en el cual se detalle la forma en que se debe analizar y administrar el riesgo crediticio al que se expone el Fondo de Empleados Docentes Universidad del Valle en el marco del SARC. Con base en lo anterior, FONVALLE contará con elementos como políticas, procesos, modelos, provisiones y controles, los cuales permitirán tener un mejor análisis de los clientes a los que se les otorgará crédito, también tener procesos definidos y apoyados en metodologías y modelos estadísticos para el otorgamiento de crédito y su respectivo recaudo. Para lograr el desarrollo de éste proyecto se deberá identificar y detallar todos los procesos que se deben considerar para el otorgamiento del crédito a los Asociados de FONVALLE teniendo en cuenta los modelos estadísticos involucrados en la evaluación del riesgo crediticio.PregradoINGENIERO(A) EN INDUSTRIA

Expansions in a concrete dam with bridge over spillway in South America

A gravity concrete dam built 61 years ago in South America is diagnosed due to the cracking and signs of deterioration detected in the spillway and other elements. Besides the interest to identify the causes, the authorities are concerned by the structural effects on the concrete slab road bridge that is supported on the spillway. This road is one of the main routes for transportation of the country. A comprehensive diagnosis on the state of the dam is presented, including research of the historical documentation, visual inspection of the dam, performance of tests and numerical simulations. The case study is particularly interesting since several phenomena occur, including expansive reactions of different origin

Expansions with different origins in a concrete dam with bridge over spillway

Concrete dams with expansions from different origins are rare and scarcely documented in the literature, therefore their study gains special interest. This study presents the case of a 62-year-old concrete dam with signs of deterioration due to expansive reactions. Several tests performed on the samples extracted from the dam such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy mode and petrography suggest that the expansions are due to a delayed ettringite formation and a subsequent alkali-silica reaction. Thermal and mechanical models developed in the study support this diagnosis

Fibre distribution and tensile response anisotropy in sprayed fibre reinforced concrete

The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1617/s11527-018-1156-5Sprayed steel fibre reinforced concrete (SSFRC) is a material that tends to present anisotropy, due to the action of the spraying process inducing preferential fibre orientation. Despite numerous applications worldwide since the 1980s, no study has been found of the assessment of fibre distribution and its influence on the residual tensile strength of SSFRC. This work addresess this issue from a quantitative standpoint through an experimental programme with specimens extracted in various orientations within a SSFRC panel. The fibre content and 3D orientation were quantified using the inductive method and correlated with an indirect tensile behaviour for the same specimen with the Barcelona test. The results confirm the high level of anisotropy of SSFRC. The fibre orientation number parallel to the spraying direction is three times bigger than that found in the perpendicular direction. Similar differences were observed between the residual tensile response measured in those directions. Comparison of test results suggest that the preferential fibre orientation creates weaker planes that favours the increase of crack opening at lower load levels.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Bi-layer diaphragm walls: structural and sectional analysis

This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in [Journal of Civil Engineering and Management] on 2016, available online: http://wwww.tandfonline.com/10.3846/13923730.2014.914085.The bi-layer diaphragm wall, a new slurry wall type designed to cope with the problem of watertightness is studied in this paper. These walls consist of two bonded concrete layers, the first, a conventional Reinforced Concrete (RC) diaphragm wall, and the second, a Sprayed Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete (SFRC). The main objective of this paper is to analyze the structural and sectional behaviour of these walls. A study in the form of an uncoupled structural-section analysis based on various hypothetical cases of bi-layer diaphragm walls was performed to fulfil the objective. It is concluded that there exists a potential of reduction in the reinforcement of the RC layer through the structural use of the SFRC layer. However, when the reduction is quantified, even though a reduction of between 3.2% and 1.7% in the RC reinforcement is confirmed, it appears insufficient to offer a cost-effective solution. Nonetheless, the system becomes a promising solution when particular conditions are taken into account, such as basement space limitations.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Fibre distribution and tensile response anisotropy in sprayed fibre reinforced concrete

Sprayed, steel fibre reinforced concrete (SSFRC) is a material that tends to present anisotropy. The shearing conditions of the spraying process induce preferential fibre orientation. Despite the extensive use of the material, no study has been found about the assessment of fibre distribution and its influence on the residual tensile strength of SSFRC. The objective of this work is to address such issue from a quantitative standpoint. An experimental program was performed with specimens extracted from different directions within a SSFRC panel. The fibre content and 3D orientation were quantified for each specimen using the inductive method. Then, the tensile behaviour was indirectly assessed for the same specimen through the Barcelona test. Results confirm the high level of anisotropy of SSFRC. The fibre orientation number parallel to the spraying direction is 3 times bigger than that found in the perpendicular direction. Similar differences were observed between the residual tensile response measured in those directions. Comparison of test results suggest that the preferential fibre orientation creates weaker planes that favours the increase of crack opening at lower load levels