Evaluation of Strategies to Reduce Equine Strongyle Infective Larvae on Pasture and Study of Larval Migration and Overwintering in a Nordic Climate

Simple Summary All grazing horses are exposed to parasites that when ingested have the potential to cause disease. Drugs designed to kill parasites in horses have been used extensively since the 1960s, but this intensive use has led to the development of drug resistance, emphasising the need for more sustainable methods to lessen parasite burdens. The efficacy and suitability of pasture-management methods aiming to reduce the level of parasitic larvae in the herbage are, however, dependent on the prevailing weather conditions. The aim of the present study was therefore to generate data on the effect of regular faecal removal and harrowing of the pasture on reducing the number of parasites in herbage in a Nordic climate. Furthermore, the ability of parasite larvae to migrate from faeces to the herbage and to survive the winter season in Sweden's cold temperate climate was investigated. Twice-weekly faecal removal significantly reduced the number of larvae on the pasture, whereas harrowing on a single occasion in the summer under dry weather conditions did not. Parasite larvae migrated as far as 150 cm from faecal pats and were able to survive one winter season, with two years of rest from grazing horses required to achieve parasite-free pasture. Horses, as grazing animals, are inadvertently exposed to intestinal parasites that, if not controlled, may cause disease. However, the indiscriminate use of anthelmintic drugs has led to drug resistance, highlighting the need for pasture-management practices to reduce the level of parasitic exposure and lessen reliance on drugs. The efficacy of such methods depends both on the epidemiology of the parasites and the prevailing weather conditions. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of faecal removal and harrowing on reducing the number of parasite larvae in herbage. Moreover, the migratory and survival ability of strongyle larvae in a Nordic climate was studied. Faeces from horses naturally infected with strongyle nematodes were used to contaminate pastures and grass samples were collected to harvest larvae. Twice-weekly faecal removal significantly reduced larval yields, whereas harrowing on a single occasion under dry weather conditions in the summer did not. Strongyle larvae were able to migrate 150 cm from the faecal pats, but most larvae were found within 50 cm. Both Cyathostominae and S. vulgaris survived the winter months with larvae harvested up to 17-18 months after faecal placement. Resting of pastures for one year greatly reduced the parasite level, but two years of rest were required for parasite-free pasture

Parasite Occurrence and Parasite Management in Swedish Horses Presenting with Gastrointestinal Disease - A Case-Control Study

Simple Summary: Abdominal pain, colic, is a common clinical sign in horses, sometimes reflecting life-threatening disease. One cause of colic is parasitic infection of the gut. Various drugs, anthelmintics, can be used to reduce or eliminate such parasites. However, frequent use has led to problems of drug resistance, whereby many countries now allow anthelmintics to be used on a prescription-only basis. In Sweden, this has led to a concern that parasitic-related colic in horses is increasing. This study aimed to investigate whether horses with colic differed in parasitological status compared to horses without colic. A secondary aim was to collect information regarding current parasite control measures used by horse owners. Exposure to S. vulgaris, a parasite with the potential to cause life-threatening disease, appeared high as determined by the presence of antibodies in the blood. Horses with inflammation in the abdominal cavity had higher antibody levels than other causes of colic. Despite new legislation, 29% of owners did not use fecal analyses for parasites and the use of extended methods to diagnose specific parasites was low. Also, owners rarely used alternative methods to reduce the pasture parasite burden. The study suggests a need for education in the use of both fecal analyses and pasture management.Abstract All grazing horses are exposed to intestinal parasites, which have the potential to cause gastrointestinal disease. In Sweden, there is a concern about an increase in parasite-related equine gastrointestinal disease, in particular Strongylus vulgaris, since the implementation of prescription-only anthelmintics approximately 10 years ago. In a prospective case-control study, parasitological status, using fecal analyses for strongyle egg counts, the presence of Anoplocephala perfoliata eggs and S. vulgaris Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as well as serology for S. vulgaris, were compared between horses presenting with or without gastrointestinal disease at a University hospital during a one-year period. Information regarding anthelmintic routines and pasture management was gathered with an owner-filled questionnaire. Although the prevalence of S. vulgaris PCR was 5.5%, 62% of horses were positive in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test and horses with peritonitis showed higher antibody levels for S. vulgaris, as compared to other diagnoses or controls. Overall, 36% of the horse owners used only fecal egg counts (FEC), 32% used FEC combined with specific diagnostics for S. vulgaris or A. perfoliata, and 29% dewormed routinely without prior parasite diagnostics. Effective management methods to reduce the parasitic burden on pastures were rare and considering exposure to S. vulgaris appears high; the study indicates a need for education in specific fecal diagnostics and pasture management

Retained efficacy of ivermectin against cyathostomins in Swedish horse establishments practicing selective anthelmintic treatment

Cyathostominae are ubiquitous to grazing horses and regarded the most prevalent internal parasite in the horse. Unfortunately, decades of indiscriminate use of anthelmintic drugs have resulted in the development of resistance in cyathostomins to all currently available drug groups, the most recent being a documented lack of efficacy to the macrocyclic lactones (ML). In vivo determination of anthelmintic resistance in horses most often utilises the faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT). Further, a shortened egg reappearance period (ERP) can indicate a change in response to the applied treatment and suggest an upcoming reduction of efficacy. Although both true resistance as demonstrated by the FECRT and shorter ERPs after ML treatment have now been shown in cyathostomins worldwide, the efficacy of ML as regards to cyathostomins in Sweden is currently unknown. The aim of the present study was therefore to determine FECRTs and ERPs after ivermectin (IVM) treatment in Swedish horses. Sixteen equestrian establishments with a minimum of six horses excreting at least 150 eggs per gram faeces (EPG) at screening were selected. For each establishment, FECRTs and ERPs were determined by collecting faecal samples prior to and 14 days after IVM treatment (200 mu g/kg), and thereafter at weekly intervals for a total of eight weeks. All participants responded to a questionnaire detailing pasture management methods and anthelmintic routines.Questionnaire results showed that the majority of establishments (69%) only treated horses with anthelmintic drugs if indicated by faecal diagnostics and all of the establishments had a mean FECRT exceeding 99.0% and ERPs ranging from six to over eight weeks. The ERP was shown to increase with age as young individuals were shown to excrete cyathostomin eggs earlier after treatment compared with older horses (R = 0.21, p = 0.015). Riding schools, stud farms and those declaring not to use separate summer and winter paddocks had significantly shorter ERPs (p <0.01).In conclusion, retained ERPs and no confirmed resistance to IVM were found in Swedish equine establishments practising selective anthelmintic treatment, and supports the use of selective deworming regimens as a means of reducing the risk of anthelmintic resistance development

Perfluoroalkyl substances in circum-ArcticRangifer: caribou and reindeer

Livers of caribou and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) from Canada (n = 146), Greenland (n = 30), Svalbard (n = 7), and Sweden (n = 60) were analyzed for concentrations of eight perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids and four perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids. In Canadian caribou, PFNA (range < 0.01–7.4 ng/g wet weight, ww) and PFUnDA (<0.01–5.6 ng/g ww) dominated, whereas PFOS predominated in samples from South Greenland, Svalbard, and Sweden, although the highest concentrations were found in caribou from Southwest Greenland (up to 28 ng/g ww). We found the highest median concentrations of all PFAS except PFHxS in Akia-Maniitsoq caribou (Southwest Greenland, PFOS 7.2–19 ng/g ww, median 15 ng/g ww). The highest concentrations of ΣPFAS were also found in Akia-Maniitoq caribou (101 ng/g ww) followed by the nearby Kangerlussuaq caribou (45 ng/g ww), where the largest airport in Greenland is situated, along with a former military base. Decreasing trends in concentrations were seen for PFOS in the one Canadian and three Swedish populations. Furthermore, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, PFDoDA, and PFTrDA showed decreasing trends in Canada’s Porcupine caribou between 2005 and 2016. In Sweden, PFHxS increased in the reindeer from Norrbotten between 2003 and 2011. The reindeer from Västerbotten had higher concentrations of PFNA and lower concentrations of PFHxS in 2010 compared to 2002. Finally, we observed higher concentrations in 2010 compared to 2002 (albeit statistically insignificant) for PFHxS in Jämtland, while PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, PFDoDA, and PFTrDA showed no difference at all.publishedVersio

Rationale for a Swedish cohort consortium

We herein outline the rationale for a Swedish cohort consortium, aiming to facilitate greater use of Swedish cohorts for world-class research. Coordination of all Swedish prospective population-based cohorts in a common infrastructure would enable more precise research findings and facilitate research on rare exposures and outcomes, leading to better utilization of study participants' data, better return of funders' investments, and higher benefit to patients and populations. We motivate the proposed infrastructure partly by lessons learned from a pilot study encompassing data from 21 cohorts. We envisage a standing Swedish cohort consortium that would drive development of epidemiological research methods and strengthen the Swedish as well as international epidemiological competence, community, and competitiveness.Peer reviewe

Breakthrough infections with the omicron and delta variants of SARS-CoV-2 result in similar re-activation of vaccine-induced immunity

Background: Results showing that sera from double vaccinated individuals have minimal neutralizing activity against Omicron have been interpreted as indicating the need for a third vaccine dose for protection. However, there is little information about early immune responses to Omicron infection in double vaccinated individuals. Methods: We measured inflammatory mediators, antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins, and spike peptide-induced release of interferon gamma in whole blood in 51 double-vaccinated individuals infected with Omicron, in 14 infected with Delta, and in 18 healthy controls. The median time points for the first and second samples were 7 and 14 days after symptom onset, respectively. Findings: Infection with Omicron or Delta led to a rapid and similar increase in antibodies to the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of Omicron protein and spike peptide-induced interferon gamma in whole blood. Both the Omicron- and the Delta-infected patients had a mild and transient increase in inflammatory parameters. <p<Interpretation: The results suggest that two vaccine doses are sufficient to mount a rapid and potent immune response upon infection in healthy individuals of with the Omicron variant

Daggmask som matris i miljögiftsövervakningen

Denna rapport är skriven på uppdrag av Naturvårdsverket (Nr 219-0932, dnr 235-6218-09Mm) i syfte att utreda daggmaskens lämplighet som matris inom den terrestra delen av miljögiftsövervakningen inom det nationella miljöövervakningsprogrammet. Daggmask av olika arter är sedan en lång tid tillbaka en mycket använd och studerad matris i toxikologiska och ekotoxikologiska sammanhang och används som testorganism för kemikalier inom OECD. Det finns också ett stort anta studier på daggmask och dess betydelse i jordbruket. Det finns med andra ord en omfattande forskning där daggmask har använts som matris både i laboratorieförsök och i fältförsök i frågeställningar som rör allt ifrån olika jordbruksmetoders inverkan på daggmaskpopulationer till daggmaskens känslighet för olika kemikalier. I denna rapport har därför tonvikten lagts på studier där daggmask har använts som matris för halter av miljögifter i jord, både i sk referensområden och i förorenade områden. Jämförelser har också gjorts med resultat från laboratoriestudier. Studier som behandlar faktorer som påverkar biotillgänglighet, metabolism och toxikokinetik av olika ämnen i daggmask har också tagits med. Även något om daggmaskens ekologi och taxonomi har också tagits med eftersom detta har stor betydelse för tolkning av analysdata. Dessutom redovisas ett antal studier där daggmaskens betydelse för hur ämnen kommer in i näringskedjan har undersökts

Metals and organic contaminants including pesticides and musk substances in earthworms from three localities in Sweden.

Denna rapport är utförd på uppdrag av Naturvårdsverket (Överenskommelse 221-1031). Syftet var att kartlägga aktuella halter av ett antal miljögifter i daggmask från tre olika områden i Sverige. Syftet var också att jämföra halter i daggmask med övriga matriser, i första hand stare (Sturnus vulgaris) som har använts i den terrestra miljöövervakningen av jordbrukslandskapet sedan tidigt 1980-tal och att utvärdera hur väl daggmask lämpar sig som matris i den terrestra miljöövervakningen av miljögifter. Daggmask utgör en viktig födokomponent för många fåglar och mindre däggdjur som i sin tur är viktiga födokomponenter för rovfåglar och andra terrestra predatorer. Daggmask kan därför vara en viktig länk mellan halter i jord och halter i levande organismer högre upp i näringskedjan. I Sverige förekommer ett tjugotal arter av daggmask tillhörande fem släkten 1, alla av familjen Lumbricidae. Dessa förekommer i olika typer av biotoper och har lite olika preferenser på jordens beskaffenhet. De arter som i första hand har varit av intresse i det här sammanhanget är de relativt storvuxna arterna av släktet Lumbricus, Allolobophora/Aporrectodea och i viss mån även Denrobaena. Det har legat utanför den här studien att gå närmare in på artantal och artfördelning på de olika insamlingslokalerna, inte heller har hänsyn tagits till ålder/grad av könsmognad hos de insamlade individerna. Daggmaskarna insamlades under sista dagarna av augusti och först halvan av september och inget urval gjordes vid insamlingstillfället, annat än att märkbart skadade individer valdes bort. I samband med frysningen av maskarna, c:a tre dygn efter insamlingen gjordes ett nytt urval där enbart friska och aktiva maskar valdes ut. När det gäller val av substanser har vi utgått från de substanser som tidigare har analyserats, framför allt i stare sedan starten av övervakningsprogrammet. Dessa är ett antal metaller (Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, Zn), klorerade substanser såsom PCB (CB-28, CB-52, CB-101, CB-118, CB-153, CB-138, CB-180), ΣDDT (DDT, DDE, DDD), HCB, α-, β-, och γ-HCH (lindan). Vidare har bromerade flamskyddsmedel, BFRs (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-209) samt HBCD och ett antal perfluorerade substanser, PFCs (PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDcA, PFUnA, PFDoA, PFTriA, PFTeA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS, PFDcS, PFOSA) analyserats. Även ett antal fenolära substanser (pentaklorfenol, n-OP, t-OP, nonylfenol, triclosan), ett femtiotal olika pesticider och femton mysksubstanser inkluderades i analysprogrammet. Samtliga analyserade metaller låg över detektiongränsen i alla prov från de tre olika lokalerna. Högst kadmiumhalter (1,52-5,25 μg/g våtvikt) hittades i mask från Fleringe och i mask från en av lokalerna i Grimsö (3,01 μg/g våtvikt). Högst halt av bly (3,22 μg/våtvikt) hittades i ett av proven från Grimsö (inte samma prov med högst kadmiumhalt). I samtliga övriga prov låg halterna av bly klart under 1 μg/g våtvikt. Kvicksilver förekom i låga men kvantifierbara halter i samtliga prov. Högst halt (0,104 och 0,125 μg/g våtvikt) hittades i två av proven från Grimsö. Halterna av kobolt, vanadin och krom var något högre i Tyrestaproven jämfört med prov från de övriga lokalerna. Mask från Fleringe hade betydligt högre halt av kalcium jämfört med mask från de andra lokalerna. Av de analyserade PCB kongenerna förekom CB-153 och CB-138 i kvantifierbara halter i sex respektive fem prov. Högst halt förekom i ett av proven från Fleringe. I detta prov förekom även CB-180. DDE förekom i kvantifierbara halter i samtliga analyserade prover. Högst halt (4672 ng/g fettvikt) hittades i ett av Grimsöproven (Morskoga) och i ett av Fleringe proven (1399 ng/g fettvikt). Det mest anmärkningsvärde var den höga DDT-halten (5383 ng/g fettvikt) som också förekom i Morskogaprovet. I detta prov förekom även en hög DDD halt (1321 ng/g fettvikt). DDT hittades inte i något av de övriga proven. Bromerade substanser förekom låga men kvantifierbara halter i samtliga prov utom i ett från Grimsö (Bergshyttan) där inga BFRs hittades. BDE-47 förekom i alla Tyresta proven, i ett av Grimsöproven och i två av Fleringe proven. Den högsta halten hittades i ett av Fleringeproven (Utoje). I detta prov hittades förutom BDE-47 (2,87 ng/g fettvikt) även BDE-99 (2,23 ng/g fettvikt), BDE-100 (0,82 ng/g fettvikt) och BDE-153 (0,39 ng/g fettvikt). BDE-209 hittades i ett av proven från Grimsö (20,3 ng/g fettvikt). Detta prov innehöll inte någon av de andra analyserade BFRs. HBCD hittades inte i något prov. Av de fenolära substanserna förekom pentaklorfenol i samtliga analyserade prov (2,6-18 ng/g våtvikt). Högst halt hittades i ett av Tyrestaproven. Oktylfenol och triklosan hittades inte i något av proven medan nonylfenol förekom i tre prov, två från Tyresta och ett från Grimsö. Ett stort problem när det gällde analyserna av dessa substanser var de höga detektions och kvantifieringsgränserna vilket gör att det är svårt att dra några egentliga slutsatser angående halterna av dessa ämnen i daggmaskproverna. Perfluorerade substanser förekom i mycket låga halter i samtliga prov. De tre vanligast förekommande PFCs var PFTriA som förekom över kvantifieringsgränsen i samtliga prov. PFOS förekom över kvantifieringsgränsen i alla prov utom i ett (Tyresta) och PFNA förekom i kvantifierbara halter i sex prov. PFHxA, PFDcA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFDcS och PFOSA hittades inte i något prov. Av analyserade pesticider hittades klorpyrifos, metribuzin och propikonazol i proven från Fleringe. Halterna var mycket låga, i nivå med detektionsgränsen. I ett av proven från Grimsö hittades endosulfansulfat (70 ng/g). Inget av proven innehöll mer än en substans. Ingen av de analyserade mysksubstanserna hittade i något av proven. Fetthalten var mycket låg, runt 0,5 % i samtliga maskprov. Generellt sett var halterna av de analyserade ämnena låga till mycket låga. Undantaget är provet från Morskoga som innehöll höga halter av DDT, DDE och DDD. Framförallt är det DDT halten i dessa prov som är förvånande. Förhöjda DDE halter har tidigare observerats i unga starar från Grimsölokalen Morskoga. Halterna i unga starar från Morskoga har dels varierat kraftigt mellan åren under perioden 1984-1995, dels var medelvärdet för hela perioden betydligt högre i starar från Morskoga jämfört med starar från övriga Grimsölokaler (Odsjö 2000). Även ett av Fleringe proven innehöll förhållandevis hög halt av DDE. Högre DDE halter har tidigare kunnat noteras i unga starar från Fleringe under perioden 1983-1995 jämfört med starar från övriga lokaler (Odsjö 2000). Kadmiumhalten var högst i maskarna från Fleringe. Att kadmiumhalten har varit högre i biota från Fleringe jämfört med Tyresta och Grimsö har tidigare setts i unga starar (Odsjö 2000; Odsjö et al. 2008). Det är svårt att se några tydliga geografiska tendenser i det begränsade materialet i den här studien. Materialet är för litet för att analyseras statistiskt men generellt kan man säga att daggmask från Fleringe och i viss mån Grimsö verkar vara något högre belastade av miljögifter. Men det måste påpekas att variationen är stor mellan provpunkterna vilket indikerar relativt lokal belastning. Provtagningsområdena både i Fleringe och Grimsö är belägna i områden där ett aktivt jordbruk har bedrivits i många år vilket sannolikt påverkar resultatet, speciellt när det gäller halter av ΣDDT och i viss mån kadmium.The present study was carried out on mandate of and in cooperation with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) according to Agreement 221-1031. The aim was to obtain knowledge of the levels of certain environmental contaminants in a matrix, earthworm (different species) that has not previously been examined in Sweden. The aim was also to compare the levels of contaminants in earthworm with levels previously found in young starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), that has been used in environmental monitoring of contaminants in terrestrial biota since the early 1980s. A purpose was also to evaluate the possibility of using earthworms in monitoring of contaminants in terrestrial biota. Earthworms are important food components for many birds and small mammals that further on are important food components to raptors and other predators in terrestrial food chains. Earthworms are thus an important link between levels of bioavailable contaminants in soil and detritus and levels in biota further up in food chains. In Sweden there are about twenty different species in five different genera, all belonging to the Lumbricidae family 2. Different species have somewhat different preferences on soil quality and also are more or less abundant in different biotopes. In this study, the larger species in the Lumbricus, Allolobophora/Aporrectodea and, to a certain extent also Dendrobaena genus have been of the largest interest. It has been beyond the scope of this study to further analyse the number of species at each sampling spot. Neither has the age or the maturity of individuals been taken into account. Earthworms were collected during the last days of August and the first half of September. No selection of individuals was made at the sampling occasion other than that damaged individuals were removed. Three days after sampling the worms were frozen in liquid nitrogen. At that occasion only healthy looking individuals were sampled. The substances that were analysed were the same as earlier has been analysed in the monitoring programmes on contaminants in biota. These are metals and some essential elements (Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, Zn), the chlorinated substances PCB (CB-28, CB-52, CB-101, CB-118, CB-153, CB-138, CB-180), ΣDDT (DDT, DDE, DDD), HCB, α-, β-, γ-HCH (lindan). Furthermore some brominated flame retardants, BFRs (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-209, HBCD), perfluorinated compounds PFCs (PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDcA, PFUnA, PFDoA, PFTriA, PFTeA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS, PFDcS, PFOSA), and phenolic compounds (pentachlorophenol, n-OP, t-OP, nonylphenol, triclosan) were analysed. Moreover, about fifty different pesticides and fifteen different musk substances were included. All of the analysed metals and elements were above LOQ in all of the analysed samples. The highest cadmium levels were found in earthworms from Fleringe (1,52-5,25 μg/g ww) and in one of the samples from Grimsö(3,01 μg/g ww). One of the samples from Grimsöcontained 3,22 μg/g ww of lead (not the same with the highest Cd levels). In all of the other samples the lead levels was well below 1 μg/g ww. Mercury was found in low but quantifiable levels in all of the samples. Highest level (0,104 and 0,125 μg/g ww) was found in two of the Grimsö samples. Levels of cobolt, vanadium and chromium were somewhat higher in the Tyresta samples. Earthworms from Fleringe had higher calcium levels compared to earthworms from the other sampling locations. CB-153 and CB-138 was found in quantifiable levels in six and five samples respectively. Highest level was found in one of the Fleringe samples. This sample also contained CB-180. DDE was found in all of the analysed samples. The highest level (4672 ng/g lw) was found in one of the Grimsö samples (Morskoga) and one of the Fleringe samples (1399 ng/g lw). The most conspicuous was the high level of DDT (5383 ng/g lw) that also was found in the Morskoga sample. This sample also contained high levels of DDD (1321 ng/g lw). DDT was not found in any of the other samples analysed. BDE-47 was found in all of the Tyresta samples, in one of the Grimsö samples and in two of the Fleringe samples. The highest level was found in one of the Fleringe samples. This sample also contained BDE-99, BDE-100, and BDE-153. BDE-209 was found in one of the Grimsö samples (20,3 ng/g lw). This sample contained none of the other analysed BFRs. HBCD was not found in any of the analysed samples. Pentachlorophenol was found in all of the analysed samples (2,6-18 ng/g ww). The highest level was found in one of the Tyresta samples. Nonylphenol (48 ng/g ww =LOQ) was found in two samples from Tyresta and one sample from Grimsö. Due to analytical problems, high LOQ, and large risks of contamination in the sampling and analytical procedure for these substances it is difficult to draw conclusions concerning the actual levels in biota. Octylphenol and triclosan was not found in any of the analysed samples. Perfluorinated substances were found in very low levels in all of the analysed samples. PFTriA was found above LOQ in all samples. PFOS was found in all samples but in one sample (Tyresta), the level was semi quantitative (&lt;LOQ). PFNA was found in six of the samples. PFHxA, PFDcA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFDcS och PFOSA was not found above LOD in any of the analysed samples. Of analysed pesticides, klorpyrifos, metribuzin and propikonazol were found at, or just above LOD in the samples from Fleringe. None of the samples contained more than one of these pesticides. Endosulfansulfat (70 ng/g) was found in one of the samples from Grimsö. None of the analysed samples contained any musk substances. The fat content was very low, about 0,5% in the earthworms. Generally most of the analysed substances were found in low or very low levels in all of the analysed samples. An exception is the sample from Morskoga (Grimsö) that contained surprisingly high levels of DDT, DDE and DDD and especially the high level of DDT in this sample is remarkable. It has earlier been observed that DDE levels in young starlings from Morskoga were higher compared to DDE levels in starlings from the other Grimsö localities. The between year variation in DDE levels starlings from Morskoga has also been large in 1983-1995 (Odsjö 2000). In addition, one of the Fleringe samples contained relatively high levels of DDE but no DDT was found in these samples. In earlier reports it has been found that starlings from Fleringe had the highest levels of DDE in 1983-1995 compared to starlings from the other sampling localities (Odsjö 2000). These results indicate that both these sampling areas still have elevated levels of ΣDDT. Earthworms from Fleringe had the highest levels of cadmium although there was a large variation between the sampling spots. Higher cadmium levels have earlier been detected in young starlings from Fleringe compared to starlings from the other sampling locations (Odsjö 2000; Odsjö et al. 2008). From the present study it is difficult to se any obvious geographical patterns due to the rather small material. Generally the sampling areas at Grimsö and Fleringe appear to have somewhat higher loadings of pollutants, especially of ΣDDT and cadmium