704 research outputs found

    La loi du 11 octobre 2010 au prisme du Conseil d’État et du Conseil constitutionnel

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    De la lecture combinĂ©e de l’étude du Conseil d’État et de la dĂ©cision du Conseil constitutionnel relatives Ă  la loi du 11 octobre 2010 interdisant la dissimulation du visage dans l’espace public ressortent deux idĂ©es partagĂ©es : l’inadĂ©quation Ă  l’objectif poursuivi des fondements juridiques traditionnels et donc la nĂ©cessitĂ© d’un fondement novateur. Pour l’une et l’autre institution, une interdiction gĂ©nĂ©rale doit demeurer l’exception, justifiant que son fondement fasse l’objet d’une apprĂ©ciation qui sorte elle-mĂȘme de l’ordinaire. Le juge constitutionnel a ainsi dĂ©gagĂ© une norme de rĂ©fĂ©rence jusque-lĂ  inexploitĂ©e.Two main ideas are shared by the Council of State and the Constitutional Council as regards the Act of 11 October 2010 prohibiting the concealment of the face in the public space: traditional legal basis are inappropriate to achieve the objective which requires an innovative basis. For each institution, a general prohibition must remain the exception, justifying that its basis is something unique to stand out. Thus, the constitutional court has highlighted a hitherto untapped reference standard

    Évolution intra-hîte de Vibrio cholerae et interactions avec le microbiome intestinal

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    Le cholĂ©ra est une infection diarrhĂ©ique aiguĂ« qui reprĂ©sente encore aujourd’hui un grave problĂšme de santĂ© publique dans les pays oĂč l’accĂšs Ă  l’eau potable et un systĂšme d’assainissement adĂ©quat ne peut pas ĂȘtre garanti. Vibrio cholerae, le pathogĂšne bactĂ©rien responsable de cette maladie, peut provoquer toute une sĂ©rie de symptĂŽmes chez les individus infectĂ©s, allant d’une diarrhĂ©e intense conduisant Ă  une dĂ©shydratation sĂ©vĂšre, au portage asymptomatique de la bactĂ©rie. Bien que notre comprĂ©hension du cholĂ©ra Ă  une Ă©chelle macro-Ă©pidĂ©miologique a considĂ©rablement Ă©tĂ© amĂ©liorĂ©e par le dĂ©veloppement des techniques de sĂ©quençage Ă  haut dĂ©bit et par les avancĂ©es dans le domaine de la gĂ©nomique bactĂ©rienne, aucune Ă©tude n’a encore Ă©tĂ© menĂ©e pour caractĂ©riser son Ă©volution Ă  l’échelle des individus infectĂ©s. De plus, le rĂŽle des porteurs asymptomatiques au sein d’une Ă©pidĂ©mie et la raison derriĂšre l’absence de symptĂŽmes chez ces individus infectĂ©s sont encore mĂ©connus. L’objectif principal de cette thĂšse est donc de (1) caractĂ©riser la diversitĂ© gĂ©nomique de V. cholerae au niveau des individus et des cercles familiaux, mais aussi (2) d’évaluer le rĂŽle potentiel du microbiome intestinal dans la susceptibilitĂ© de contracter cette maladie entĂ©rique aiguĂ« et de prĂ©senter des symptĂŽmes sĂ©vĂšres. Dans un premier temps, nous caractĂ©risons la diversitĂ© gĂ©nomique de colonies isolĂ©es Ă  partir de patients symptomatiques. Le sĂ©quençage de gĂ©nomes entiers de souches provenant de patients du Bangladesh et d’HaĂŻti rĂ©vĂšle que cette diversitĂ© sous la forme de mutations ponctuelles reste limitĂ©e, mais dĂ©tectable au sein des hĂŽtes. Une grande partie de la variation du contenu gĂ©nĂ©tique semble ĂȘtre surtout due au gain et Ă  la perte de phages et de plasmides au sein de la population de V. cholerae, avec des Ă©changes occasionnels entre le pathogĂšne et d’autres membres commensaux du microbiote intestinal. Cela contredit l’hypothĂšse couramment acceptĂ©e que les infections par V. cholerae sont majoritairement clonales, et confirme que le transfert horizontal de gĂšnes est un facteur important dans l’évolution de V. cholerae. De plus, nos rĂ©sultats montrent que certains de ces variants peuvent avoir un effet phĂ©notypique, impactant par exemple la formation de biofilms, et peuvent ĂȘtre sĂ©lectionnĂ©s au sein des individus infectĂ©s. Par la suite, nous appliquons une association de mĂ©thodes de sĂ©quençage de gĂ©nomes entiers et de mĂ©thodes mĂ©tagĂ©nomiques afin d’amĂ©liorer la dĂ©tection des variants intra-hĂŽte, Ă  la fois chez des patients symptomatiques, mais aussi chez des porteurs asymptomatiques. Notre Ă©tude montre que l’approche mĂ©tagĂ©nomique offre une meilleure rĂ©solution dans la dĂ©tection de la diversitĂ© dans la population microbienne, mais reste difficile Ă  appliquer chez des patients asymptomatiques, en raison du faible nombre de cellules de V. cholerae chez ces patients. Dans l’ensemble, nous constatons que le niveau de diversitĂ© au sein de la population bactĂ©rienne intra-hĂŽte est similaire entre les patients symptomatiques et asymptomatiques. Nous dĂ©tectons aussi la prĂ©sence de souches hypermutantes chez certains patients. De plus, alors que les mutations chez les patients porteurs de phĂ©notypes d’hypermutations ne semblent pas sous l’effet de la sĂ©lection, des signes d'Ă©volution parallĂšle sont dĂ©tectĂ©s chez les patients prĂ©sentant un plus faible nombre de mutations, suggĂ©rant des mĂ©canismes d’adaptation au sein de l’hĂŽte. Nos rĂ©sultats soulignent la puissance de la mĂ©tagĂ©nomique combinĂ©e au sĂ©quençage de gĂ©nomes entiers pour caractĂ©riser la diversitĂ© intra-hĂŽte dans le cas d’une infection aiguĂ« du cholĂ©ra, mais aussi dans le cas de portage asymptomatique, tout en identifiant pour la premiĂšre fois le phĂ©notype d’hypermutation chez des patients infectĂ©s. Finalement, nous nous intĂ©ressons aux facteurs liĂ©s Ă  la susceptibilitĂ© Ă  la maladie et Ă  la sĂ©vĂ©ritĂ© des symptĂŽmes. BasĂ©e sur une Ă©tude rĂ©cente utilisant le sĂ©quençage 16S pour montrer le lien potentiel entre le microbiome intestinal et la susceptibilitĂ© Ă  l’infection par V. cholerae, nos analyses utilisent les mĂ©thodes de sĂ©quençage mĂ©tagĂ©nomique sur les mĂȘmes Ă©chantillons de cette prĂ©cĂ©dente Ă©tude afin de caractĂ©riser les profils taxonomiques et fonctionnels du microbiome intestinal de contacts familiaux exposĂ©s Ă  V. cholerae. Les Ă©chantillons sont prĂ©levĂ©s avant l’infection de ces contacts familiaux et l’apparition ou non de symptĂŽmes, et sont analysĂ©s pour identifier des prĂ©dicteurs Ă  la maladie symptomatique. GrĂące Ă  un algorithme d’apprentissage machine, nous pouvons identifier des espĂšces, des familles de gĂšnes et des voies mĂ©taboliques du microbiome au moment de l'exposition Ă  V. cholerae pour dĂ©tecter des biomarqueurs potentiels corrĂ©lĂ©s avec les risques d'infection et la gravitĂ© des symptĂŽmes. Nos rĂ©sultats montrent que l’utilisation du sĂ©quençage mĂ©tagĂ©nomique amĂ©liore la prĂ©cision et l’exactitude des prĂ©visions par rapport au sĂ©quençage 16S. Nos analyses permettent aussi de prĂ©dire la gravitĂ© de la maladie, bien qu’avec une plus grande incertitude que la prĂ©diction de l’infection. Des taxons bactĂ©riens des genres Prevotella et Bifidobacterium ont Ă©tĂ© identifiĂ©es comme des marqueurs potentiels de protection contre l’infection, tout comme gĂšnes impliquĂ©s dans le mĂ©tabolisme du fer. Nos rĂ©sultats soulignent le pouvoir de la mĂ©tagĂ©nomique pour prĂ©dire l’évolution des maladies et identifient des espĂšces et des gĂšnes spĂ©cifiques pouvant ĂȘtre impliquĂ©s dans des tests expĂ©rimentaux afin d’étudier les mĂ©canismes liĂ©s au microbiome intestinal expliquant la potentielle protection contre le cholĂ©ra.Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal disease that remains a global threat to public health in countries where access to safe water and adequate sanitation cannot be guaranteed. Vibrio cholerae, the bacterial pathogen responsible for this disease, can cause a range of symptoms in infected individuals, from intense diarrhea leading to severe dehydration, to asymptomatic carriage of the bacteria. Although our understanding of cholera on a macro-epidemiological scale has been considerably improved by the development of high-throughput sequencing techniques and by advances in bacterial genomics, no studies have yet been conducted to characterize its evolution at the scale of infected individuals. Furthermore, the role of asymptomatic carriers in an epidemic and the reason behind the absence of symptoms in these infected individuals remains unknown. The main objective of this thesis is therefore to characterize the genomic diversity of V. cholerae at the level of individuals and households, but also to evaluate the potential role of the gut microbiome in the susceptibility to contract this acute enteric disease and to present severe symptoms. First, we characterize the genomic diversity of colonies isolated from symptomatic patients. The whole genome sequencing of strains from patients in Bangladesh and Haiti reveals that this diversity is detectable in the form of point mutations within hosts, but remains limited. Much of the variation detected within patients appears to be due to the gain and loss of phages and plasmids within the V. cholerae population, with occasional exchanges between the pathogen and other commensal members of the gut microbiota. These results challenge the commonly accepted assumption that V. cholerae infections are predominantly clonal, and confirm that horizontal gene transfer is an important factor in the evolution of V. cholerae. In addition, our results show that some of these variants may also have a phenotypic effect, for example by impacting biofilm formation, and can be selected within infected individuals. Next, we apply a combination of whole genome sequencing and metagenomic approaches to improve the detection of intra-host variants, both in symptomatic patients and in asymptomatic carriers. Our study shows that the metagenomic approach offers a better resolution in the detection of the diversity in the microbial population, but remains difficult to apply in asymptomatic patients, due to the low number of V. cholerae cells in these individuals. Overall, we find that the level of diversity within the intra-host bacterial population is similar between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. We also detect the presence of hypermutator strains in some patients. In addition, while mutations in patients with hypermutator phenotypes did not appear to be driven by selection, signs of parallel evolution are detected in patients with fewer mutations, suggesting adaptive mechanisms within the host. Our results underline the power of metagenomics combined with whole genome sequencing to characterize intra-host diversity in acute cholera infection, but also in asymptomatic carriers, while identifying for the first time an hypermutator phenotype in infected patients. Finally, we are interested in factors related to susceptibility to the disease and related to the severity of symptoms. Based on a recent study using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to show the potential link between the intestinal microbiome and susceptibility to V. cholerae infection, our study uses metagenomic sequencing methods on the same samples from this previous study to characterize the taxonomic and functional profiles of the gut microbiome of household contacts exposed to V. cholerae. Samples are collected prior to infection of these household contacts, and used to identify predictors of symptomatic disease. Using a machine learning algorithm, we can identify species, gene families and metabolic pathways in the microbiome at the time of exposure to V. cholerae to detect potential biomarkers correlated with risk of infection and symptom severity. Our results show that the use of metagenomic sequencing improves the precision and accuracy of predictions compared to 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Our analyses also predict disease severity, although with greater uncertainty than the prediction of infection. Bacterial taxa from the genera Prevotella and Bifidobacterium have been identified as potential markers of protection against infection, as well as genes involved in iron metabolism. Our results highlight the power of metagenomics to predict disease progression and identify specific species and genes that could be involved in experimental tests to study the mechanisms related to the microbiome explaining potential protection against cholera

    Abnormal iron metabolism in fibroblasts from a patient with the neurodegenerative disease hereditary ferritinopathy

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    <p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Nucleotide duplications in exon 4 of the ferritin light polypeptide (FTL) gene cause the autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease neuroferritinopathy or hereditary ferritinopathy (HF). Pathologic examination of patients with HF has shown abnormal ferritin and iron accumulation in neurons and glia in the central nervous system (CNS) as well as in cells of other organ systems, including skin fibroblasts. To gain some understanding on the molecular basis of HF, we characterized iron metabolism in primary cultures of human skin fibroblasts from an individual with the <it>FTL c.497_498dupTC </it>mutation.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Compared to normal controls, HF fibroblasts showed abnormal iron metabolism consisting of increased levels of ferritin polypeptides, divalent metal transporter 1, basal iron content and reactive oxygen species, and decreased levels of transferrin receptor-1 and IRE-IRP binding activity.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Our data indicates that HF fibroblasts replicate the abnormal iron metabolism observed in the CNS of patients with HF. We propose that HF fibroblasts are a unique cellular model in which to study the role of abnormal iron metabolism in the pathogenesis of HF without artifacts derived from over-expression or lack of endogenous translational regulatory elements.</p

    Is autophagy the key mechanism by which the sphingolipid rheostat controls the cell fate decision?

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    Sphingolipids are major constituents of biological membrane and some of them behave as second messengers involved in the cell fate decision. Ceramide and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) constitute a rheostat system in which ceramide promotes cell death and S1P increases cell survival. We have shown that both sphingolipids are able to trigger autophagy with opposing outcomes on cell survival. Here we discuss and speculate on the diverging functions of the autophagic pathways induced by ceramide and S1P, respectively

    IL-6 Deficiency Attenuates Murine Diet-Induced Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis

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    BACKGROUND:The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a common cause of liver disease, is still poorly understood. This study aimed at assessing the involvement of a major inflammatory cytokine, IL-6, in NASH. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Steatohepatitis was induced by feeding wild-type or IL-6(-/-) mice for 5 weeks with a methionine and choline-deficient (MCD) diet. RESULTS:Whereas MCD diet-induced weight loss and decreases in serum glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels were similar in both genotypes, serum alanine aminotransferase was less elevated in IL-6(-/-) mice than in wild-type animals. Despite having a comparable liver steatosis score, IL-6-deficient mice exhibited less lobular inflammation than their wild-type littermates. Liver gene expression of TGF-beta and MCP-1 was also strongly attenuated in mutant mice; a more modest reduction was observed for PPAR-gamma and F4/80 transcripts as well as proteins. Chromatographic analysis of liver lipids demonstrated that MCD diet induced in normal and mutant mice a similar decrease in the ratio of phosphatidylcholine to phosphatidylethanolamine. However, the diet-induced increase in the levels of sphingomyelin and ceramide was less important in IL-6(-/-) mice. CONCLUSION:Altogether, these results indicate that IL-6 deficiency does not block the development of NASH; yet, IL-6 plays a critical role in the accompanying liver inflammation

    GM2-GM3 gangliosides ratio is dependent on GRP94 through down-regulation of GM2-AP cofactor in brain metastasis cells

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    GRP94 is an ATP-dependent chaperone able to regulate pro-oncogenic signaling pathways. Previous studies have shown a critical role of GRP94 in brain metastasis (BrM) pathogenesis and progression. In this work, an untargeted lipidomic analysis revealed that some lipid species were altered in GRP94-deficient cells, specially GM2 and GM3 gangliosides. The catalytic pathway of GM2 is affected by the low enzymatic activity of beta-Hexosaminidase (HexA), responsible for the hydrolysis of GM2 to GM3. Moreover, a deficiency of the GM2-activator protein (GM2-AP), the cofactor of HexA, is observed without alteration of gene expression, indicating a post-transcriptional alteration of GM2-AP in the GRP94-ablated cells. One plausible explanation of these observations is that GM2-AP is a client of GRP94, resulting in defective GM2 catabolic processing and lysosomal accumulation of GM2 in GRP94-ablated cells. Overall, given the role of gangliosides in cell surface dynamics and signaling, their imbalance might be linked to modifications of cell behaviour acquired in BrM progression. This work indicates that GM2-AP could be an important factor in ganglioside balance maintenance. These findings highlight the relevance of GM3 and GM2 gangliosides in BrM and reveal GM2-AP as a promising diagnosis and therapeutic target in BrM research

    Saposins (sap) A and C activate the degradation of galactosylceramide in living cells

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    AbstractIn loading tests using galactosylceramide which had been labelled with tritium in the ceramide moiety, living skin fibroblast lines derived from the original prosaposin-deficient patients had a markedly reduced capacity to degrade galactosylceramide. The hydrolysis of galactosylceramide could be partially restored in these cells, up to about half the normal rate, by adding pure saposin A, pure saposin C, or a mixture of these saposins to the culture medium. By contrast, saposins B and D had little effect on galactosylceramide hydrolysis in the prosaposin-deficient cells. Cells from ÎČ-galactocerebrosidase-deficient (Krabbe) patients had a relatively high residual galactosylceramide degradation, which was similar to the rate observed for prosaposin-deficient cells in the presence of saposin A or C. An SV40-transformed fibroblast line from the original saposin C-deficient patient, where saposin A is not affected, showed normal degradation of galactosylceramide. The findings support the hypothesis, which was deduced originally from in vitro experiments, that saposins A and C are the in vivo activators of galactosylceramide degradation. Although the results with saposin C-deficient fibroblasts suggest that the presence of only saposin A allows galactosylceramide breakdown to proceed at a normal rate in fibroblasts, it remains to be determined whether saposins A and C can substitute for each other with respect to their effects on galactosylceramide metabolism in the whole organism
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