The need for new paradigms for complex projects

This is a version of a paper which formed the opening session of a workshop on managing and modelling complex projects. In order to introduce the theme, it discusses what constitutes project complexity. It aims to be inclusive rather than exclusive. Highlighted are structural complexity, the number and interdependence of elements (following a paper by Baccarini) and uncertainty in goals and means (following a paper by Turner and Cochrane). The paper considers whether these aspects can be operationalised. It gives some ideas about why project complexity might be considered to be increasing, in particular the increasing complexity of products being developed, and moves towards shorter timescales. Finally, it notes some areas where new methods are needed

MHC class II-dependent basophil-CD4(+) T cell interactions promote T(H)2 cytokine-dependent immunity

Dendritic cells can prime naive CD4(+) T cells; however, here we demonstrate that dendritic cell-mediated priming was insufficient for the development of T helper type 2 cell-dependent immunity. We identify basophils as a dominant cell population that coexpressed major histocompatibility complex class II and interleukin 4 message after helminth infection. Basophilia was promoted by thymic stromal lymphopoietin, and depletion of basophils impaired immunity to helminth infection. Basophils promoted antigen-specific CD4(+) T cell proliferation and interleukin 4 production in vitro, and transfer of basophils augmented the population expansion of helminth-responsive CD4(+) T cells in vivo. Collectively, our studies suggest that major histocompatibility complex class II-dependent interactions between basophils and CD4(+) T cells promote T helper type 2 cytokine responses and immunity to helminth infectio