72 research outputs found

    Performances Ă©puratoires d’une filiĂšre de trois bassins en sĂ©rie de lagunage Ă  microphytes sous climat sahĂ©lien : cas de la station de traitement des eaux usĂ©es de 21E (groupe EIER-ETSHER)

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    Des Ă©tudes portant sur l’épuration des eaux usĂ©es domestiques ont Ă©tĂ© menĂ©es sur une filiĂšre de trois bassins en sĂ©rie de lagunage Ă  microphytes Ă  la station expĂ©rimentale de l’Institut International d’IngĂ©nierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (2IE). Cette filiĂšre comporte : un bassin anaĂ©robie (BA), un bassin facultatif (BF) et un bassin de maturation (BM). Des mesures d’indicateurs de qualitĂ© ont Ă©tĂ© effectuĂ©es pendant dix mois sur des Ă©chantillons prĂ©levĂ©s suivant une frĂ©quence bihebdomadaire pour certains et hebdomadaire pour d’autres. Les rendements Ă©puratoires moyens atteignent 66 % pour les MES, 81 % pour la DCO et 87 % pour la DBO5. Le rĂ©siduel de MES de l’effluent traitĂ© rĂ©pond, dans 76 % des mesures, aux normes de rejet recommandĂ©es par la directive de l’Union EuropĂ©enne (< 150 mg L‑1). L’élimination du phosphore est faible et instable avec un rendement moyen de 17,2 % pour le phosphore total et 19,2 % pour les ortho-phosphates. La rĂ©duction de la pollution azotĂ©e atteint en moyenne 76 % en NTK et 38,4 % en azote ammoniacal. De maniĂšre globale, les teneurs rĂ©siduelles en azote et en phosphore restent assez Ă©levĂ©es par rapport Ă  la limite tolĂ©rable pour un rejet d’effluent dans un Ă©cosystĂšme sensible Ă  l’eutrophisation. L’abattement de la pollution bactĂ©rienne est important allant jusqu’à 4,9 ulog pour les coliformes fĂ©caux; mais la teneur rĂ©siduelle moyenne (5,4 × 103 unitĂ©s formant des colonies (ufc)/100 mL) reste tout de mĂȘme supĂ©rieure Ă  la directive OMS (≀ 1 000 ufc/100 mL) pour une rĂ©utilisation non restrictive en irrigation. Concernant la charge parasitaire, les Ă©tudes ont montrĂ© que la filiĂšre assure une Ă©limination totale (100 %) des oeufs d’helminthes et des kystes de protozoaires.Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are considered to be one of the main methods for municipal wastewater because of their advantages over other methods (conventional treatment) relating to treatment effectiveness, system flexibility and simplicity, and cost (Arthur, 1983; Mara, 1976; Mara and Pearson, 1986; Silva, 1982). Moreover, it has long been accepted that tropical climates provide an ideal environment for the natural treatment of sewage in ponds.Since 1989, the 2IE (International Institute for water and Environmental Engineering) wastewater treatment plant in the city of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) has been investigating the performance of pilot-scale systems in order to establish regional design parameters and removal efficiencies. Several experiments have been carried out on pond series with different configurations and operational characteristics aiming to improve the design, operation and performance of waste stabilization ponds in Sahelian climate conditions. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the efficiency of a new series of three stabilization ponds.The series was composed by one anaerobic pond (AP), one facultative pond (FP) followed by one maturation pond (MP). The characteristics (depth, area, volume and hydraulic retention time) were respectively 2.6 m, 69.7 m2, 181.2 m3, and three days for the AP, 1.4 m, 415.3 m2 and 581.4 m3 and 9.5 days for the FP, 0.9 m, 336.9 m2, 303.2 m3 and 5.5 days for the MP. The ponds were constructed with concrete to ensure water tightness. Field studies indicated a wide fluctuation in the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) loading applied. The average volumetric organic load ranged from 104 to 225 g BOD5 m‑3j‑1 with an average load of 105.2 g BOD5 m‑3j‑1 for the AP, the average surface BOD5 load on the FP was 117 kg BOD5/ha/j.The series was monitored for ten months from October 2004 to July 2005. The assessment involved an intensive program of sampling and analysis. The composite samples (obtained daily by mixing equal volumes of grab samples collected) were taken from the influent and effluent of each pond twice per week. Global physico-chemical parameters (T°, pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), conductivity ) were measured in situ. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) were analyzed according to standard methods. Suspended solids (SS) were determined gravimetrically after filtration through Whatman GF/C glass fiber filters and drying at 105°C. Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) and ammonia nitrogen (AN) were analyzed according to AFNOR methods. Nitrate nitrogen (NT), total phosphorus (TP) and orthophosphate (OP) were determined by HACH methods. Faecal coliforms (FC) were counted by layer technique using the chromocult coliform agar, helminth eggs and protozoan cysts were determined by sodium acetate formalin (SAF) adapted method.Results showed during the study period average removal rates of 66% for SS, 87% for filtered BOD5, and 81% for COD. For COD and BOD5, removal performances were relatively constant over the study period with ranges of (60,9% ‑ 96,1%) and (65,6 ‑ 6,8%), respectively. In 83.8% of filtered BOD5 measures (n = 68) on the final effluent, BOD5 removal efficiency were higher than 80%. However, for SS removal efficiency, it indicated a wide fluctuation. The same fluctuation was observed on SS concentration on the final effluent, with a variation coefficient of 34.3%. Effluent SS concentrations from the series varied between a minimum of 4 mg/L and a maximum of 326 mg/L with average of 110 mg/L. The higher values of SS were observed during the warm period (March-April) corresponding to the abundance of algal proliferation in facultative and maturation ponds. In this period, effluent SS concentrations were higher than the influent ones, leading to negative efficiencies for these ponds. Despite this disturbance due to algal proliferation, the final effluent quality met the European Union (EU) quality requirements, i.e suspended solids concentration < 150 mg per litre. This standard was achieved in 76% of SS measures (n = 75) during the study period.The capability of the system for phosphorus removal was weak and variable, with average removals around 17% and 19% respectively for TP and OP removals. The mean residual concentrations of TP and OP in the final effluent were respectively 12.5 mg/L and 4.6 mg/L, values higher than the maximum concentration of 0.1 mg/L PT for the discharge of effluent in water sensitive to eutrophication (Ayers and Westcot,1985; WHO, 1989). Average TKN removal was 76%. Global efficiencies of the three-pond series for nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) reduction were weak and the effluent concentration of these nutrients did not satisfy the quality recommended to discharge in water sensitive to eutrophication. However, they could be useful as fertilizer for reuse for irrigation.With a total hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 18 days, the removal of faecal coliforms (fc) reached a maximum removal of 4.9 log units. The residuals fc concentration in the final effluent ranged between 1 × 103 fc/100 mL to 3.4 × 105 fc/100 mL, with an average of 5.4 × 103 fc/100 mL. According to the WHO recommendation (1989) for reuse in agriculture, the effluent did not meet the WHO guideline (≀ 1000 fc per 100 mL) for unrestricted irrigation. In spite of an average HRT of 18 days, the results showed that the fc removal for the WSP system (AP + FP + MP) in a Sahelian climate did not meet the WHO standard for faecal coliform reduction. The performance results of this study were, however, slightly better than those obtained by Maderaet al. (2002) on a similar study in wet tropical climate (in Colombia). Concerning helminths eggs and protozoan cysts, different parasites were identified in the raw wastewater such as: eggs of ankylostoms ranging from 0 to 4 eggs/litre, ascaris eggs 0 ‑ 10 eggs/litre, trichuris eggs 0 ‑ 1 egg/litre, and larval stages of anguillula 0 ‑ 5 eggs/litre. Two protozoan cysts were identified in the raw wastewater: Entamoeba coli ranged 6 ‑ 272 cysts/litre and entamoeba histolitica 2 ‑ 55 cysts/litre. Concerning helminths eggs and protozoan cysts removals, they were all completely (100%) removed in the final effluent of the series after 18 days HRT. Helminth eggs and protozoan cysts removal was very good. Most were removed in the anaerobic and facultative ponds, and the WHO guideline values for crop irrigation (both restricted and unrestricted) of < 1 egg/litre were achieved after the two first ponds (AP + FP). Regarding sanitary concerns during the ten‑month study period, the final effluent of the three ponds series correspond to B category effluent (WHO,1989) which could be reused for irrigation of cereal crops, industrial crops, fodder crops, pasture, and trees

    Investigating molecular basis of lambda-cyhalothrin resistance in an Anopheles funestus population from Senegal.

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    BACKGROUND Anopheles funestus is one of the major malaria vectors in tropical Africa, notably in Senegal. The highly anthropophilic and endophilic behaviours of this mosquito make it a good target for vector control operations through the use of insecticide treated nets, long-lasting insecticide nets and indoor residual spraying. However, little is known about patterns of resistance to insecticides and the underlying resistance mechanisms in field populations of this vector in Senegal. METHODS Here, we assessed the susceptibility status of An. funestus populations from Gankette Balla, located in northern Senegal and investigated the potential resistance mechanisms. RESULTS WHO bioassays indicated that An. funestus is resistant to lambda-cyhalothrin 0.05 % (74.64 % mortality), DDT 4 % (83.36 % mortality) and deltamethrin 0.05 % (88.53 % mortality). Suspected resistance was observed to permethrin 0.75 % (91.19 % mortality), bendiocarb 0.1 % (94.13 % mortality) and dieldrin 4 % (96.41 % mortality). However, this population is fully susceptible to malathion 5 % (100 % mortality) and fenitrothion 1 % (100 % mortality). The microarray and qRT-PCR analysis indicated that the lambda-cyhalothrin resistance in Gankette Balla is conferred by metabolic resistance mechanisms under the probable control of cytochrome P450 genes among which CYP6M7 is the most overexpressed. The absence of overexpression of the P450 gene, CYP6P9a, indicates that the resistance mechanism in Senegal is different to that observed in southern Africa. CONCLUSIONS This study represents the first report of pyrethroid and DDT resistance in An. funestus from Senegal and shows that resistance to insecticides is not only confined to An. gambiae as previously thought. Therefore, urgent action should be taken to manage the resistance in this species to ensure the continued effectiveness of malaria control

    Feeding behaviour of potential vectors of West Nile virus in Senegal

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    Background: West Nile virus (WNV) is a widespread pathogen maintained in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds with occasional spill-over into dead-end hosts such as horses and humans. Migratory birds are believed to play an important role in its dissemination from and to the Palaearctic area, as well as its local dispersion between wintering sites. The Djoudj Park, located in Senegal, is a major wintering site for birds migrating from Europe during the study period (Sept. 2008-Jan. 2009). In this work, we studied the seasonal feeding behaviour dynamics of the potential WNV mosquito vectors at the border of the Djoudj Park, using a reference trapping method (CDC light CO(2)-baited traps) and two host-specific methods (horse- and pigeon-baited traps). Blood meals of engorged females were analysed to determine their origin. Results: Results indicated that Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. neavei may play a key role in the WNV transmission dynamics, the latter being the best candidate bridging-vector species between mammals and birds. Moreover, the attractiveness of pigeon-and horse-baited traps for Cx. neavei and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus varied with time. Finally, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus was only active when the night temperature was above 20 degrees C, whereas Cx. neavei was active throughout the observation period. Conclusions: Cx. neavei and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus are the main candidate vectors for the transmission of WNV in the area. The changes in host attractiveness might be related to variable densities of the migratory birds during the trapping period. We discuss the importance of these results on the risk of WNV transmission in horses and humans

    Anopheles gambiae complex along The Gambia river, with particular reference to the molecular forms of An. gambiae s.s

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    BACKGROUND: The geographic and temporal distribution of M and S molecular forms of the major Afrotropical malaria vector species Anopheles gambiae s.s. at the western extreme of their range of distribution has never been investigated in detail. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Collections of indoor-resting An. gambiae s.l. females were carried out along a ca. 400 km west to east transect following the River Gambia from the western coastal region of The Gambia to south-eastern Senegal during 2005 end of rainy season/early dry season and the 2006 rainy season. Specimens were identified to species and molecular forms by PCR-RFLP and the origin of blood-meal of fed females was determined by ELISA test. RESULTS: Over 4,000 An. gambiae s.l. adult females were collected and identified, 1,041 and 3,038 in 2005 and 2006, respectively. M-form was mainly found in sympatry with Anopheles melas and S-form in the western part of the transect, and with Anopheles arabiensis in the central part. S-form was found to prevail in rural Sudan-Guinean savannah areas of Eastern Senegal, in sympatry with An. arabiensis. Anopheles melas and An. arabiensis relative frequencies were generally lower in the rainy season samples, when An. gambiae s.s. was prevailing. No large seasonal fluctuations were observed for M and S-forms. In areas where both M and S were recorded, the frequency of hybrids between them ranged from to 0.6% to 7%. DISCUSSION: The observed pattern of taxa distribution supports the hypothesis of a better adaptation of M-form to areas characterized by water-retaining alluvial deposits along the Gambia River, characterized by marshy vegetation, mangrove woods and rice cultivations. In contrast, the S-form seems to be better adapted to free-draining soil, covered with open woodland savannah or farmland, rich in temporary larval breeding sites characterizing mainly the eastern part of the transect, where the environmental impact of the Gambia River is much less profound and agricultural activities are mainly rain-dependent. Very interestingly, the observed frequency of hybridization between the molecular forms along the whole transect was much higher than has been reported so far for other areas. CONCLUSION: The results support a bionomic divergence between the M and S-forms, and suggest that the western extreme of An. gambiae s.s. geographical distribution may represent an area of higher-than-expected hybridization between the two molecular forms

    Impact of mosquito bites on asexual parasite density and gametocyte prevalence in asymptomatic chronic Plasmodium falciparum infections and correlation with IgE and IgG titers.

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    International audienceAn immunomodulatory role of arthropod saliva has been well documented, but evidence for an effect on Plasmodium sp. infectiousness remains controversial. Mosquito saliva may orient the immune response toward a Th2 profile, thereby priming a Th2 response against subsequent antigens, including Plasmodium. Orientation toward a Th1 versus a Th2 profile promotes IgG and IgE proliferation, respectively, where the former is crucial for the development of an efficient antiparasite immune response. Here we assessed the direct effect of mosquito bites on the density of Plasmodium falciparum asexual parasites and the prevalence of gametocytes in chronic, asymptomatic infections in a longitudinal cohort study of seasonal transmission. We additionally correlated these parasitological measures with IgE and IgG antiparasite and anti-salivary gland extract titers. The mosquito biting density was positively correlated with the asexual parasite density but not asexual parasite prevalence and was negatively correlated with gametocyte prevalence. Individual anti-salivary gland IgE titers were also negatively correlated with gametocyte carriage and were strongly positively correlated with antiparasite IgE titers, consistent with the hypothesis that mosquito bites predispose individuals to develop an IgE antiparasite response. We provide evidence that mosquito bites have an impact on asymptomatic infections and differentially so for the production of asexual and sexual parasites. An increased research focus on the immunological impact of mosquito bites during asymptomatic infections is warranted, to establish whether strategies targeting the immune response to saliva can reduce the duration of infection and the onward transmission of the parasite

    Methods to collect Anopheles mosquitoes and evaluate malaria transmission: A comparative study in two villages in Senegal

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    <p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Various methods have been studied as replacement of human landing catches (HLC) for mosquito sampling in entomological studies on malaria transmission. Conflicting results have been obtained in comparing relative efficiency of alternative methods, according to the area, the species present and their density. The aim of this study was to compare the number and characteristics of mosquitoes sampled in two areas of Senegal by three different methods: HLC, light traps adjacent to an occupied bed net (LT/N), pyrethrum spray catches (PSC).</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Collections were performed in two villages: Dielmo (Soudan savanna) and Bandafassi (Soudan Guinean savanna), two or three nights per month for a 4-5 months period during the maximal transmission season in 2001-2002. Species were identified and <it>Plasmodium </it>infection determined by ELISA. The specific composition, circumsporozoite protein rate and entomological inoculation rate were calculated.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The diversity of mosquito species captured was maximal with LT/N, minimal with PSC. The mean number of anopheles captures each night was significantly different according to the method used and the species. PSC displayed a significantly lower anopheles density. HLC was the most efficient sampling method when <it>Anopheles gambiae </it>was the main vector (in Bandafassi); LT/N when it was <it>Anopheles funestus </it>(in Dielmo). A significant correlation was found between HLC and LT/M but correlation parameters were different according to the species. Circumsporozoite protein rates were not significantly different between methods or species. The entomological inoculation rate varied along with vector density and thus with methods and species.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The choice of sampling method influenced entomological data recorded. Therefore, the sampling technique has to be chosen according to the vector studied and the aim of the study. Only HLC must be considered as the reference method, but in some conditions LT/N can be used as an alternative method.</p

    Dynamics of transmission of Plasmodium falciparum by Anopheles arabiensis and the molecular forms M and S of Anopheles gambiae in Dielmo, Senegal

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    <p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The adaptation of <it>Anopheles gambiae </it>to humans and its environment involves an ongoing speciation process that can be best demonstrated by the existence of various chromosomal forms adapted to different environments and of two molecular forms known as incipient taxonomic units.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The aim of this study was to compare the epidemiologic role of <it>Anopheles arabiens </it>is and the molecular forms M and S of <it>Anopheles gambiae </it>in the transmission of Plasmodium in a rural areas of southern Senegal, Dielmo. The sampling of mosquitoes was carried out monthly between July and December 2004, during the rainy season, by human volunteers and pyrethrum spray catches.</p> <p>Results</p> <p><it>Anopheles arabiensis</it>, <it>An. gambiae </it>M and S forms coexisted during the rainy season with a predominance of the M form in September and the peak of density being observed in August for the S form. Similar parity rates were observed in <it>An. arabiensis </it>[70.9%] (n = 86), <it>An</it>. <it>gambiae </it>M form [68.7%] (n = 64) and <it>An</it>. <it>gambiae </it>S form [81.1%] (n = 156). The circumsporozoite protein (CSP) rates were 2.82% (n = 177), 3.17% (n = 315) and 3.45% (n = 405), with the mean anthropophilic rates being 71.4% (n = 14), 86.3% (n = 22) and 91.6% (n = 24) respectively for <it>An</it>. <it>arabiensis </it>and <it>An</it>. <it>gambiae </it>M and S forms. No significant difference was observed either in host preference or in <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>infection rates between sympatric M and S populations.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>No difference was observed either in host preference or in <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>infection rates between sympatric M and S populations, but they present different dynamics of population. These variations are probably attributable to different breeding conditions.</p

    Assessment of exposure to Plasmodium falciparum transmission in a low endemicity area by using multiplex fluorescent microsphere-based serological assays

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    Background: The evaluation of malaria transmission intensity is a crucial indicator for estimating the burden of malarial disease. In this respect, entomological and parasitological methods present limitations, especially in low transmission areas. The present study used a sensitive multiplex assay to assess the exposure to Plasmodium falciparum infection in children living in an area of low endemicity. In three Senegalese villages, specific antibody (IgG) responses to 13 pre-erythrocytic P. falciparum peptides derived from Lsa1, Lsa3, Glurp, Salsa, Trap, Starp, Csp and Pf11.1 proteins were simultaneously evaluated before (June), at the peak (September) and after (December) the period of malaria transmission, in children aged from 1 to 8 years. Results: Compared to other antigens, a high percentage of seropositivity and specific antibody levels were detected with Glurp, Salsa1, Lsa3NR2, and Lsa1J antigens. The seropositivity increased with age for all tested antigens. Specific IgG levels to Glurp, Salsa1, Lsa3NR2, and Lsa1J were significantly higher in P. falciparum infected children compared to non-infected and this increase is significantly correlated with parasite density. Conclusion: The multiplex assay represents a useful technology for a serological assessment of rapid variations in malaria transmission intensity, especially in a context of low parasite rates. The use of such combined serological markers (i.e. Glurp, Lsa1, Lsa3, and Salsa) could offer the opportunity to examine these variations over time, and to evaluate the efficacy of integrated malaria control strategies

    Evaluation of antibody response to Plasmodium falciparum in children according to exposure of Anopheles gambiae s.l or Anopheles funestus vectors

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    <p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>In sub-Saharan areas, malaria transmission was mainly ensured by <it>Anopheles. gambiae </it>s.l. and <it>Anopheles. funestus </it>vectors. The immune response status to <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>was evaluated in children living in two villages where malaria transmission was ensured by dissimilar species of <it>Anopheles </it>vectors (<it>An. funestus vs An. gambiae </it>s.l.).</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A multi-disciplinary study was performed in villages located in Northern Senegal. Two villages were selected: Mboula village where transmission is strictly ensured by <it>An. gambiae </it>s.l. and Gankette Balla village which is exposed to several <it>Anopheles </it>species but where <it>An. funestus </it>is the only infected vector found. In each village, a cohort of 150 children aged from one to nine years was followed during one year and IgG response directed to schizont extract was determined by ELISA.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Similar results of specific IgG responses according to age and <it>P. falciparum </it>infection were observed in both villages. Specific IgG response increased progressively from one-year to 5-year old children and then stayed high in children from five to nine years old. The children with <it>P. falciparum </it>infection had higher specific antibody responses compared to negative infection children, suggesting a strong relationship between production of specific antibodies and malaria transmission, rather than protective immunity. In contrast, higher variation of antibody levels according to malaria transmission periods were found in Mboula compared to Gankette Balla. In Mboula, the peak of malaria transmission was followed by a considerable increase in antibody levels, whereas low and constant anti-malaria IgG response was observed throughout the year in Gankette Balla.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>This study shows that the development of anti-malaria antibody response was profoundly different according to areas where malaria exposure is dependent with different <it>Anopheles </it>species. These results are discussed according to i) the use of immunological tool for the evaluation of malaria transmission and ii) the influence of <it>Anopheles </it>vectors species on the regulation of antibody responses to <it>P. falciparum</it>.</p

    Low and seasonal malaria transmission in the middle Senegal River basin: identification and characteristics of Anopheles vectors

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    <p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>During the last decades two dams were constructed along the Senegal River. These intensified the practice of agriculture along the river valley basin. We conducted a study to assess malaria vector diversity, dynamics and malaria transmission in the area.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A cross-sectional entomological study was performed in September 2008 in 20 villages of the middle Senegal River valley to evaluate the variations of <it>Anopheles </it>density according to local environment. A longitudinal study was performed, from October 2008 to January 2010, in 5 selected villages, to study seasonal variations of malaria transmission.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Among malaria vectors, 72.34% of specimens collected were <it>An. arabiensis</it>, 5.28% <it>An. gambiae </it>of the S molecular form, 3.26% M form, 12.90% <it>An. pharoensis</it>, 4.70% <it>An. ziemanni</it>, 1.48% <it>An. funestus </it>and 0.04% <it>An. wellcomei</it>. <it>Anopheles </it>density varied according to village location. It ranged from 0 to 21.4 <it>Anopheles</it>/room/day and was significantly correlated with the distance to the nearest ditch water but not to the river.</p> <p>Seasonal variations of <it>Anopheles </it>density and variety were observed with higher human biting rates during the rainy season (8.28 and 7.55 <it>Anopheles </it>bite/man/night in October 2008 and 2009 respectively). Transmission was low and limited to the rainy season (0.05 and 0.06 infected bite/man/night in October 2008 and 2009 respectively). During the rainy season, the endophagous rate was lower, the anthropophagic rate higher and L1014F kdr frequency higher.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Malaria vectors are present at low-moderate density in the middle Senegal River basin with <it>An. arabiensis </it>as the predominant species. Other potential vectors are <it>An. gambiae </it>M and S form and <it>An. funestus</it>. Nonetheless, malaria transmission was extremely low and seasonal.</p
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