Which blueberries are better value? The development and validation of the functional numeracy assessment for adults with aphasia

BACKGROUND: People with aphasia (PWA) can experience functional numeracy difficulties, that is, problems understanding or using numbers in everyday life, which can have numerous negative impacts on their daily lives. There is growing interest in designing functional numeracy interventions for PWA; however, there are limited suitable assessments available to monitor the impact of these interventions. Existing functional numeracy assessments lack breadth and are not designed to be accessible for PWA, potentially confounding their performance. Additionally, they do not include real-life demands, such as time pressure, which may affect their ecological validity. Thus, there is a crucial need for a new assessment to facilitate further research of PWA's functional numeracy. AIMS: To develop, validate and pilot a wide-ranging, aphasia-friendly functional numeracy assessment to investigate how functional numeracy is impacted by aphasia severity and time pressure demands, and to explore predictors of PWA's functional numeracy. METHODS & PROCEDURES: To develop the Functional Numeracy Assessment (FNA), 38 items inspired by the General Health Numeracy Test (GHNT) and Excellence Gateway were adapted for suitability for PWA and entered in a computerized psychometric-style test. The final 23 items (FNA23) were selected based on 213 neurotypical controls' performance, and controlled for difficulty, response modality and required numeracy skills. Aphasia-friendly adaptations of the GHNT and Subjective Numeracy Scale were used to examine the FNA23's concurrent validity. Internal consistency reliability and interrater reliability (for spoken responses) were also examined. A novel Time Pressure Task was created by slight adaptation of seven FNA23 questions to explore the effects of time pressure on functional numeracy performance. A total of 20 PWA and 102 controls completed all measures on an online testing platform. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: The FNA23 demonstrated acceptable internal consistency reliability (KR-20 = 0.81) and perfect interrater reliability (for spoken responses). FNA23 and GHNT scores were positively associated, suggesting satisfactory concurrent validity. PWA demonstrated poorer functional numeracy than controls and took longer to complete assessments, indicating that aphasia impacts functional numeracy. Time pressure did not significantly impact performance. PWA demonstrated a wide range of functional numeracy abilities, with some performing similarly to controls. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: The FNA23 is a wide-ranging, valid and reliable assessment which, with further development, will be a useful tool to identify and monitor PWA's functional numeracy difficulties in research and clinical practice. Considering PWA's widespread functional numeracy difficulties evidenced by this study, all PWA would likely benefit from routine evaluation for functional numeracy difficulties as part of their neurorehabilitation journeys. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on this subject Few studies have investigated functional numeracy difficulties in PWA. No published functional numeracy assessments exist that have been specifically designed to be accessible for PWA. What this paper adds to existing knowledge The newly developed FNA23 is a valid and reliable tool to extensively assess PWA's functional numeracy. This study confirmed previous findings of widespread functional numeracy difficulties in PWA that are related to their aphasia severity. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The FNA23 can be used to assess PWA's functional numeracy to inform areas of strengths and difficulties to target in intervention, and to monitor progress towards achieving intervention objectives. All PWA should be routinely evaluated for functional numeracy difficulties

CRAFTING A NEW DETERRENCE STRATEGY FOR SOUTH KOREA TO COUNTER NUCLEAR NORTH KOREA

Following the Korean War, U.S. tactical nuclear weapons played a critical role in deterring North Korean aggression against South Korea. The presence of these weapons also assuaged South Korea’s ambitions for a reunification war and a domestic nuclear weapons program. But, in 1991, the United States withdrew its tactical nuclear weapons, judging that the Cold War had ended and that improved conventional weapons could replace them as a deterrent, especially if North Korea denuclearized. Instead, the Kim Jong Un regime has rapidly expanded North Korea’s nuclear and missile capabilities, simultaneously threatening the national security of South Korea and the United States. As a result, South Korean anxieties about U.S. extended deterrence are deepening. Many feel that South Korea should have an independent nuclear capability to counter North Korea. However, given South Korea’s membership in the Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear options for South Korea face several challenges. Therefore, this thesis proposes that strengthening South Korea's space and cyber-electromagnetic programs is the most practical and effective means to enhance deterrence against North Korea, while also integrating South Korea's deterrent components and linking them more closely with the forces of the United States and Japan.Approved for public release. Distribution is unlimited.Captain, Republic of Korea Arm

NiOx electrochemical sensor fabricated via electrodeposition and spin‐coating

Abstract NiOx thin films were prepared on an Au substrate using the electrodeposition (ED), spin‐coating (SP), and ED after SP (SP/ED) techniques to realize their application as an electrochemical sensor for the selective detection of trace substances. The results indicated that the electrodeposited films had nanoparticles formed as coarse‐grain morphology, and the spin‐coated films had a uniform layer with ∼60 nm thickness. The thin film prepared by the SP/ED technique showed the highest electrochemical activity, and it was used to record a linear sweep voltammogram to measure the target substance, monosodium glutamate (MSG), and glucose, from low concentrations (2 nM) to high concentrations (200 μM). Within the range of concentrations, high R2 values of ≥0.99 were observed for both target substances, confirming that the SP/ED thin films can be used as an electrochemical sensor with high reliability

Real-Time Optical Visualization of Graphene Defects and Grain Boundaries by the Thermal Oxidation of a Graphene-Coated Copper Foil

We have constructed a system that can visualize graphene defects in real time by coupling a heater and an optical instrument. In this system, the phenomenon of copper oxidation was used to visualize defects in graphene. When heat is applied to graphene synthesized on a copper foil, oxygen in the atmosphere penetrates through the graphene grain boundaries and oxidizes the copper substrate. This system observes the entire process of copper oxidation in real time and controls the rate of the visualization process by adjusting the temperature and time. A temperature–time graph for graphene defect visualization was plotted based on the experimental data, which indicates that it only requires 5 min at 225 °C for completion of the visualization process. Additionally, through scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses, it has been confirmed that copper oxidation occurs during the process of visualization of graphene defects. Compared to conventional optical visualization methods, this technique is faster and more convenient. This system is expected to enable easy and fast quality inspection for the mass production of graphene

Real-Time Optical Visualization of Graphene Defects and Grain Boundaries by the Thermal Oxidation of a Graphene-Coated Copper Foil

We have constructed a system that can visualize graphene defects in real time by coupling a heater and an optical instrument. In this system, the phenomenon of copper oxidation was used to visualize defects in graphene. When heat is applied to graphene synthesized on a copper foil, oxygen in the atmosphere penetrates through the graphene grain boundaries and oxidizes the copper substrate. This system observes the entire process of copper oxidation in real time and controls the rate of the visualization process by adjusting the temperature and time. A temperature–time graph for graphene defect visualization was plotted based on the experimental data, which indicates that it only requires 5 min at 225 °C for completion of the visualization process. Additionally, through scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses, it has been confirmed that copper oxidation occurs during the process of visualization of graphene defects. Compared to conventional optical visualization methods, this technique is faster and more convenient. This system is expected to enable easy and fast quality inspection for the mass production of graphene