Willingness to use and distribute HIV self-test kits to clients and partners: a qualitative analysis of female sex workers' collective opinion and attitude in Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, and Senegal

Background: In West Africa, female sex workers are at increased risk of HIV acquisition and transmission. HIV self-testing could be an effective tool to improve access to and frequency of HIV testing to female sex workers, their clients and partners. This article explores their perceptions regarding HIV self-testing use and the redistribution of HIV self-testing kits to their partners and clients. Methods: Embedded within ATLAS, a qualitative study was conducted in Côte-d’Ivoire, Mali, and Senegal in 2020. Nine focus group discussions were conducted. A thematic analysis was performed. Results: A total of 87 participants expressed both positive attitudes toward HIV self-testing and their willingness to use or reuse HIV self-testing. HIV self-testing was perceived to be discreet, confidential, and convenient. HIV self-testing provides autonomy from testing by providers and reduces stigma. Some perceived HIV self-testing as a valuable tool for testing their clients who are willing to offer a premium for condomless sex. While highlighting some potential issues, overall, female sex workers were optimistic about linkage to confirmatory testing following a reactive HIV self-testing. Female sex workers expressed positive attitudes toward secondary distribution to their partners and clients, although it depended on relationship types. They seemed more enthusiastic about secondary distribution to their regular/emotional partners and regular clients with whom they had difficulty using condoms, and whom they knew enough to discuss HIV self-testing. However, they expressed that it could be more difficult with casual clients; the duration of the interaction being too short to discuss HIV self-testing, and they fear violence and/or losing them. Conclusion: Overall, female sex workers have positive attitudes toward HIV self-testing use and are willing to redistribute to their regular partners and clients. However, they are reluctant to promote such use with their casual clients. HIV self-testing can improve access to HIV testing for female sex workers and the members of their sexual and social network

Prise en charge de l’infection par HIV-1 dans les pays en développement : aspects diagnostiques et évaluation immuno-virologique de l’efficacité thérapeutique dans le sang et les compartiments muqueux

Regularly assess to UNAIDS cascade 90-90-90 is important to check the progress and identify any obstacles to its implementation. For this we first studied efficacy of antiretroviral treatment (ART) in the blood of newly diagnosed HIV-positive in Bamako (Mali).In a second work we evaluated the feasibility of viral load and genotypic resistance tests from dried blood spot (DBS). The third part of our work is dedicated to pathophysiological aspects with evaluation of treatment on salivary and genital reservoirs (Bamako patients) and on the vaginal microbiota, as well as the study of the resistance profile of the strains archived in cellular DNA of rectal biopsies. We observed a high rate of lost to follow-up at one year in the Bamako cohort (45%). We also found a high rate of ART primary resistance in Bamako and Chad (> 15%). Reassuringly, the virological success after 1 year of treated follow was about 90% in these adherents. We also demonstrated the efficacy of ART in the salivary compartment and found a compartmentalization of the virus at the cervico-vaginal level in some women under ART. In addition, a dysbiosis was observed before ART, and a normal flora under effective ART. Similar profiles were observed on the main strain isolated in blood at the time of diagnosis and on the archived strain in the rectum after 1 to 5 years of ART.In conclusion, our work provides new information on the progress of the treatment stages of HIV infection in developing countries: low adherence to treatment which can constitute a major obstacle to achieve the plan 90/90/90; a high prevalence of primary resistance advocating accessibility and rational use of different classes of antiretrovirals drugs, widespread routine use of viral load tests and the development of ARVs resistance surveillance network in resource-limited countries; treatment efficacy data on mucosal reservoirs revealing the existence of genital dysbiosis and viral compartmentalization, which raises the problem of the residual risk of transmission in some people, even under ARVs.A l’ère de l’objectif cible « 90-90-90 » de l’ONUSIDA de réduction de la pandémie liée à HIV, il est important d’évaluer régulièrement la cascade de prise en charge des personnes vivant avec le virus HIV afin d’en vérifier l’avancement et d’identifier d’éventuels obstacles à sa réalisation. Pour cela nous avons étudié tout d’abord efficacité du traitement antirétroviral (TAR) dans le sang de personnes nouvellement dépistées séropositives à Bamako (Mali). Dans un deuxième travail nous avons évalué la faisabilité des tests de charge virale et de résistance génotypique aux antirétroviraux à partir de sang total séché sur un support de type buvard (DBS). La troisième partie de nos travaux était consacrée à des aspects plus physiopathologiques avec l’évaluation du traitement sur les réservoirs salivaires et génitaux (patients de Bamako) et sur le microbiote vaginal, ainsi que l’étude du profil de résistance des souches archivées dans l’ADN cellulaire de biopsies rectales. Nous avons tout d’abord observé un taux important de perdus de vue à un an dans la cohorte de Bamako (environ 45%). Nous avons également constaté un taux élevé de résistance primaire aux ARV à Bamako et au Tchad (>15%). De manière rassurante, le succès virologique au bout de 1 an chez les personnes traitées était d’environ 90% ce qui correspond à l’objectif de l’ONUSIDA (3ème 90) et un faible niveau de mutations acquises a été observé chez ces personnes adhérentes au traitement. Nous avons démontré l’efficacité du TAR sur le compartiment salivaire et constaté une compartimentation du virus au niveau cervico-vaginal chez certaines femmes traitées (27%) présentant une excrétion virale au niveau vaginal avec une charge virale plasmatique indétectable et/ou des séquences génétiques différentes sur le gène pol entre le virus isolé dans la muqueuse et celui provenant du sang. De plus, une dysbiose était observée avant la mise sous traitement, avec normalisation de la flore sous TAR efficace. En ce qui concerne le travail sur les biopsies rectales, des profils similaires ont été observés entre la souche plasmatique majoritaire au moment de la mise sous TAR et celle archivée dans le rectum 1 à 5 ans après traitement. En conclusion, nos travaux apportent des informations nouvelles sur le déroulement des différentes étapes de la prise en charge de l’infection par HIV dans les pays en développement : tout d’abord une faible adhésion au traitement ce qui peut constituer un obstacle majeur à la réalisation du plan 90/90/90 ; une forte prévalence de la résistance primaire qui plaident en faveur de l’accessibilité aux différentes classes d’antirétroviraux et de leur utilisation rationnelle, de l’utilisation généralisée en routine des tests de charge virale et du développement d’un réseau de surveillance de la résistance aux ARV dans les pays à ressources limitées ; des données d’efficacité de traitement sur les réservoirs muqueux mettant en évidence l’existence d’une dysbiose et d’une compartimentation du virus au niveau génital ce qui pose le problème du risque résiduel de transmission chez certaines personnes, même sous ARV

Management of HIV infection in developing countries : diagnostic and immuno-virological evaluation of therapeutic efficacy in blood and mucosal compartments

A l’ère de l’objectif cible « 90-90-90 » de l’ONUSIDA de réduction de la pandémie liée à HIV, il est important d’évaluer régulièrement la cascade de prise en charge des personnes vivant avec le virus HIV afin d’en vérifier l’avancement et d’identifier d’éventuels obstacles à sa réalisation. Pour cela nous avons étudié tout d’abord efficacité du traitement antirétroviral (TAR) dans le sang de personnes nouvellement dépistées séropositives à Bamako (Mali). Dans un deuxième travail nous avons évalué la faisabilité des tests de charge virale et de résistance génotypique aux antirétroviraux à partir de sang total séché sur un support de type buvard (DBS). La troisième partie de nos travaux était consacrée à des aspects plus physiopathologiques avec l’évaluation du traitement sur les réservoirs salivaires et génitaux (patients de Bamako) et sur le microbiote vaginal, ainsi que l’étude du profil de résistance des souches archivées dans l’ADN cellulaire de biopsies rectales. Nous avons tout d’abord observé un taux important de perdus de vue à un an dans la cohorte de Bamako (environ 45%). Nous avons également constaté un taux élevé de résistance primaire aux ARV à Bamako et au Tchad (>15%). De manière rassurante, le succès virologique au bout de 1 an chez les personnes traitées était d’environ 90% ce qui correspond à l’objectif de l’ONUSIDA (3ème 90) et un faible niveau de mutations acquises a été observé chez ces personnes adhérentes au traitement. Nous avons démontré l’efficacité du TAR sur le compartiment salivaire et constaté une compartimentation du virus au niveau cervico-vaginal chez certaines femmes traitées (27%) présentant une excrétion virale au niveau vaginal avec une charge virale plasmatique indétectable et/ou des séquences génétiques différentes sur le gène pol entre le virus isolé dans la muqueuse et celui provenant du sang. De plus, une dysbiose était observée avant la mise sous traitement, avec normalisation de la flore sous TAR efficace. En ce qui concerne le travail sur les biopsies rectales, des profils similaires ont été observés entre la souche plasmatique majoritaire au moment de la mise sous TAR et celle archivée dans le rectum 1 à 5 ans après traitement. En conclusion, nos travaux apportent des informations nouvelles sur le déroulement des différentes étapes de la prise en charge de l’infection par HIV dans les pays en développement : tout d’abord une faible adhésion au traitement ce qui peut constituer un obstacle majeur à la réalisation du plan 90/90/90 ; une forte prévalence de la résistance primaire qui plaident en faveur de l’accessibilité aux différentes classes d’antirétroviraux et de leur utilisation rationnelle, de l’utilisation généralisée en routine des tests de charge virale et du développement d’un réseau de surveillance de la résistance aux ARV dans les pays à ressources limitées ; des données d’efficacité de traitement sur les réservoirs muqueux mettant en évidence l’existence d’une dysbiose et d’une compartimentation du virus au niveau génital ce qui pose le problème du risque résiduel de transmission chez certaines personnes, même sous ARV.Regularly assess to UNAIDS cascade 90-90-90 is important to check the progress and identify any obstacles to its implementation. For this we first studied efficacy of antiretroviral treatment (ART) in the blood of newly diagnosed HIV-positive in Bamako (Mali).In a second work we evaluated the feasibility of viral load and genotypic resistance tests from dried blood spot (DBS). The third part of our work is dedicated to pathophysiological aspects with evaluation of treatment on salivary and genital reservoirs (Bamako patients) and on the vaginal microbiota, as well as the study of the resistance profile of the strains archived in cellular DNA of rectal biopsies. We observed a high rate of lost to follow-up at one year in the Bamako cohort (45%). We also found a high rate of ART primary resistance in Bamako and Chad (> 15%). Reassuringly, the virological success after 1 year of treated follow was about 90% in these adherents. We also demonstrated the efficacy of ART in the salivary compartment and found a compartmentalization of the virus at the cervico-vaginal level in some women under ART. In addition, a dysbiosis was observed before ART, and a normal flora under effective ART. Similar profiles were observed on the main strain isolated in blood at the time of diagnosis and on the archived strain in the rectum after 1 to 5 years of ART.In conclusion, our work provides new information on the progress of the treatment stages of HIV infection in developing countries: low adherence to treatment which can constitute a major obstacle to achieve the plan 90/90/90; a high prevalence of primary resistance advocating accessibility and rational use of different classes of antiretrovirals drugs, widespread routine use of viral load tests and the development of ARVs resistance surveillance network in resource-limited countries; treatment efficacy data on mucosal reservoirs revealing the existence of genital dysbiosis and viral compartmentalization, which raises the problem of the residual risk of transmission in some people, even under ARVs

Evidence of HIV-1 Genital Shedding after One Year of Antiretroviral Therapy in Females Recently Diagnosed in Bamako, Mali

Little is known about the dynamic of HIV-1 shedding and resistance profiles in the female genital reservoir after antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation in resource-limited countries (RLCs), which is critical for evaluating the residual sexual HIV-1 transmission risk. The present study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of 1 year duration ART at blood and genital levels in females newly diagnosed for HIV-1 from three centers in Bamako, Mali. Seventy-eight consenting females were enrolled at the time of their HIV-1 infection diagnosis. HIV-1 RNA loads (Abbott Real-Time HIV-1 assay) were tested in blood and cervicovaginal fluids (CVF) before and 12 months after ART initiation. Primary and acquired resistances to ART were evaluated by ViroseqTM HIV-1 genotyping assay. The vaginal microbiota was analyzed using IonTorrentTM NGS technology (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Proportions of primary drug resistance mutations in blood and CVF were 13.4% and 25%, respectively. Discrepant profiles were observed in 25% of paired blood/CVF samples. The acquired resistance rate was 3.1% in blood. At month 12, undetectable HIV-1 RNA load was reached in 84.6% and 75% of blood and CVF samples, respectively. A vaginal dysbiosis was associated with HIV RNA shedding. Our findings emphasize the need of reinforcing education to improve retention in care system, as well as the necessity of regular virological monitoring before and during ART and of implementing vaginal dysbiosis diagnosis and treatment in RLCs

Challenges of HIV self-tests distribution for index testing in a context where HIV status disclosure is low: preliminary experience of the ATLAS project in Bamako, Mali

BACKGROUND: In Côte d’’Ivoire, Mali and Senegal, ATLAS project has introduced HIV self-testing (HIVST) as an index testing strategy, distributing HIVST kits to people living with HIV (PLHIV) during consultations for secondary distribution to their partners. Here, we present preliminary results of an ethnographic survey conducted in one HIV clinic in Bamako, Mali, where most HIV patients have not disclosed their HIV status to their partner(s), notably for women for fear of jeopardizing their relationships. In such a context, how non-disclosure affect the distribution of HIVST kits?METHODS: The study was conducted from September 25 to November 27, 2019, and included individual interviews with 8 health workers; 591 observations of medical consultations; and 7 observations of patient groups discussions led by peer educators.RESULTS: Three principal barriers to HIVST distribution for index testing were identified. (1) Reluctance of PLHIV to offer HIVST to partners to whom they have not (yet) disclosed their status and desire to learn tactics for offering testing without disclosing their HIV status. (2) Near-universal hesitancy among health workers to offer HIVST to persons who, they believe, have not disclosed their HIV status to their partner(s). (3) Absence of strategies, among health workers, to support discussion of status disclosure with PLHIV. In the rare cases where HIVST was offered to a PLHIV whose partner did not know their status, either the PLHIV declined the offer or the provider left it to the patient to find a way to deliver the HIVST without disclosing his/her status.CONCLUSIONS: HIV self-testing distribution could serve as an opportunity for PLHIV to disclose their HIV status to partners. The continuing reluctance of PLHIV to heed advice to share their status and promote secondary HIV self-testing distribution highlights the structural factors (social inequalities and stigma) that limit awareness of HIV status and that favour the persistence of the epidemic

Identifying population-specific HIV diagnosis gaps in Western Africa and assessing their impact on new infections: a modelling analysis for Côte d'Ivoire, Mali and Senegal

International audienceBACKGROUND: Progress towards HIV elimination in Western Africa may be hindered by diagnosis gaps among people living with HIV (PLHIV), especially among key populations (KP) such as female sex workers (FSW), their clients, and men who have sex with men (MSM). We aimed to identify largest gaps in diagnosis by risk group in Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal, and project their contribution to new HIV infections.METHODS: Deterministic models of HIV transmission/diagnosis/treatment that incorporate HIV transmission among KP were parameterized following comprehensive country-specific reviews of demographic, behavioural, HIV and intervention data. The model was calibrated to country- and group-specific empirical outcomes such as HIV incidence/prevalence, the fractions of PLHIV ever tested, diagnosed, and on treatment. We estimated the distribution of undiagnosed PLHIV by risk group in 2020 and the population-attributable-fractions (tPAFs) (i.e. fraction of new primary and secondary HIV infections 2020-2029 originating from risk groups of undiagnosed PLHIV).RESULTS: From 46% (95% UI: 38-58) to 69% (59-79) of undiagnosed PLHIV in 2020 were males, with the lowest proportion in Mali and the highest proportion in Senegal, where 41% (28-59) of undiagnosed PLHIV were MSM. Undiagnosed men are estimated to contribute most new HIV infections occurring over 2020-2029 (Table). Undiagnosed FSW and their clients contribute substantial proportions of new HIV infections in Mali, with tPAF=20% (10-36) and tPAF=43% (26-56), respectively, while undiagnosed MSM in Senegal are estimated to contribute half of new infections. A lower proportion of new HIV infections are transmitted by undiagnosed KP in Côte d'Ivoire (tPAF=21%(10-38)).CONCLUSIONS: Current HIV testing services and approaches are leaving members of KP behind. Increasing the availability of confidential HIV testing modalities in addition to traditional tests may substantially reduce gaps in HIV diagnosis and accelerate the decrease of new HIV infections in Western Africa since half of them could be transmitted by undiagnosed KP

Identifying population-specific HIV diagnosis gaps in Western Africa and assessing their impact on new infections: a modelling analysis for Côte d'Ivoire, Mali and Senegal

International audienceBACKGROUND: Progress towards HIV elimination in Western Africa may be hindered by diagnosis gaps among people living with HIV (PLHIV), especially among key populations (KP) such as female sex workers (FSW), their clients, and men who have sex with men (MSM). We aimed to identify largest gaps in diagnosis by risk group in Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal, and project their contribution to new HIV infections.METHODS: Deterministic models of HIV transmission/diagnosis/treatment that incorporate HIV transmission among KP were parameterized following comprehensive country-specific reviews of demographic, behavioural, HIV and intervention data. The model was calibrated to country- and group-specific empirical outcomes such as HIV incidence/prevalence, the fractions of PLHIV ever tested, diagnosed, and on treatment. We estimated the distribution of undiagnosed PLHIV by risk group in 2020 and the population-attributable-fractions (tPAFs) (i.e. fraction of new primary and secondary HIV infections 2020-2029 originating from risk groups of undiagnosed PLHIV).RESULTS: From 46% (95% UI: 38-58) to 69% (59-79) of undiagnosed PLHIV in 2020 were males, with the lowest proportion in Mali and the highest proportion in Senegal, where 41% (28-59) of undiagnosed PLHIV were MSM. Undiagnosed men are estimated to contribute most new HIV infections occurring over 2020-2029 (Table). Undiagnosed FSW and their clients contribute substantial proportions of new HIV infections in Mali, with tPAF=20% (10-36) and tPAF=43% (26-56), respectively, while undiagnosed MSM in Senegal are estimated to contribute half of new infections. A lower proportion of new HIV infections are transmitted by undiagnosed KP in Côte d'Ivoire (tPAF=21%(10-38)).CONCLUSIONS: Current HIV testing services and approaches are leaving members of KP behind. Increasing the availability of confidential HIV testing modalities in addition to traditional tests may substantially reduce gaps in HIV diagnosis and accelerate the decrease of new HIV infections in Western Africa since half of them could be transmitted by undiagnosed KP

Défis de la distribution des autotests VIH pour le dépistage des cas index lorsque le partage du statut VIH est faible : résultats préliminaires d'une étude qualitative à Bamako (Mali) dans le cadre du projet ATLAS

Contexte : Le taux de partage du statut VIH aux partenaires est faible au Mali, un pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest avec une prévalence nationale du VIH de 1,2%. L’autodépistage du VIH (ADVIH) pourrait augmenter la couverture du dépistage chez les partenaires des personnes vivant avec le VIH (PVVIH). Le programme AutoTest-VIH, Libre d’accéder à la connaissance de son Statut (ATLAS) a été lancé en Afrique de l’Ouest avec l’objectif de distribuer près d’un demi-million d’autotests VIH de 2019 à 2021 en Côte d’Ivoire, au Mali et au Sénégal. Le programme ATLAS intègre plusieurs activités de recherche. Cet article présente les résultats préliminaires de l’étude qualitative du programme ATLAS au Mali. Cette étude vise à améliorer notre compréhension des pratiques, des limites et des enjeux liés à la distribution des autotests VIH aux PVVIH afin qu’elles puissent proposer ces tests à leurs partenaires sexuels.Méthodes : Cette étude qualitative a été menée en 2019 dans une clinique de prise en charge du VIH à Bamako. Elle a consisté en (i) des entretiens individuels avec 8 professionnels de santé impliqués dans la distribution des autotests VIH ; (ii) 591 observations de consultations médicales, y compris de consultations de services sociaux, avec des PVVIH ; (iii) 7 observations de discussions de groupe de PVVIH animées par des pairs éducateurs, entretiens avec les professionnels de santé et les notes d’observation ont fait l’objet d’une analyse de contenu.Résultats : L’ADVIH a été abordé dans seulement 9% des consultations observées (51/591). Lorsque l’ADVIH était abordée, la discussion était presque toujours initiée par le professionnel de santé plutôt que par la PVVIH. La discussion sur l’ADVIH était peu fréquente car, dans la plupart des consultations, il n’était pas approprié de proposer l’ADVIH au partenaire (par exemple, lorsque les PVVIH étaient veuves, n’avaient pas de partenaire ou avaient délégué quelqu’un pour renouveler leurs ordonnances). Certaines PVVIH n’avaient pas révélé leur statut VIH à leur partenaire. La distribution de l’ADVIH prenait beaucoup de temps, et les consultations médicales étaient très courtes.Trois principaux obstacles à la distribution d’ADVIH lorsque le statut VIH n’avait pas été divulgué aux partenaires ont été identifiés : (1) la quasi-totalité des professionnels de santé évitaient de proposer l’ADVIH aux PVVIH lorsqu’ils pensaient ou savaient que les PVVIH n’avaient pas révélé leur statut VIH à leurs partenaires ; (2) les PVVIH étaient réticentes à proposer l’ADVIH à leurs partenaires s’ils ne leur avaient pas révélé leur séropositivité ; (3) l’utilisation des stratégies de soutien à la divulgation du statut VIH était limitée.Conclusion : Il est essentiel de renforcer les stratégies de soutien à la révélation du statut VIH+. Il est nécessaire de développer une approche spécifique pour la mise à disposition des autotests VIH pour les partenaires des PVVIH en repensant l’implication des acteurs. Cette approche doit leur permettre de bénéficier d’une formation adaptée aux problématiques liées à la (non)divulgation du statut VIH et aux inégalités de genre, et d’améliorer le conseil aux PVVIH

Challenges of HIV self-test distribution for index testing when HIV status disclosure is low: preliminary results of a qualitative study in Bamako (Mali) as part of the ATLAS project

Context: The rate of HIV status disclosure to partners is low in Mali, a West African country with a national HIV prevalence of 1.2%. HIV self-testing (HIVST) could increase testing coverage among partners of people living with HIV (PLHIV). The AutoTest-VIH, Libre d'accéder à la connaissance de son Statut (ATLAS) program was launched in West Africa with the objective of distributing nearly half a million HIV self-tests from 2019 to 2021 in Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, and Senegal. The ATLAS program integrates several research activities. This article presents the preliminary results of the qualitative study of the ATLAS program in Mali. This study aims to improve our understanding of the practices, limitations and issues related to the distribution of HIV self-tests to PLHIV so that they can offer the tests to their sexual partners. Methods: This qualitative study was conducted in 2019 in an HIV care clinic in Bamako. It consisted of (i) individual interviews with eight health professionals involved in the distribution of HIV self-tests; (ii) 591 observations of medical consultations, including social service consultations, with PLHIV; (iii) seven observations of peer educator-led PLHIV group discussions. The interviews with health professionals and the observations notes have been subject to content analysis. Results: HIVST was discussed in only 9% of the observed consultations (51/591). When HIVST was discussed, the discussion was almost always initiated by the health professional rather than PLHIV. HIVST was discussed infrequently because, in most of the consultations, it was not appropriate to propose partner HIVST (e.g., when PLHIV were widowed, did not have partners, or had delegated someone to renew their prescriptions). Some PLHIV had not disclosed their HIV status to their partners. Dispensing HIV self-tests was time-consuming, and medical consultations were very short. Three main barriers to HIVST distribution when HIV status had not been disclosed to partners were identified: (1) almost all health professionals avoided offering HIVST to PLHIV when they thought or knew that the PLHIV had not disclosed their HIV status to partners; (2) PLHIV were reluctant to offer HIVST to their partners if they had not disclosed their HIV-positive status to them; (3) there was limited use of strategies to support the disclosure of HIV status. Conclusion: It is essential to strengthen strategies to support the disclosure of HIV+ status. It is necessary to develop a specific approach for the provision of HIV self-tests for the partners of PLHIV by rethinking the involvement of stakeholders. This approach should provide them with training tailored to the issues related to the (non)disclosure of HIV status and gender inequalities, and improving counseling for PLHIV