Apoptosis in the Nervous System in Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis

We report here for the first time the occurrence of apoptosis of cells in the spinal cord in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), an autoimmune, T-cell-mediated demyelinating disease. Four different forms of EAE were studied in the Lewis rat: (i) acute EAE induced by inoculation with whole spinal cord and adjuvants; (ii) acute EAE induced by inoculation with myelin basic protein (MBP) and adjuvants; (iii) acute EAE induced by the passive transfer of MBP-sensitized spleen cells; (iv) chronic relapsing EAE induced by inoculation with whole spinal cord and adjuvants followed by treatment with low-dose cyclosporin A. Cells undergoing apoptosis were recognized at light and electron microscopy by the presence of either crescentic masses of condensed chromatin lying against the nuclear envelope or rounded masses of uniformly dense chromatin. They were found in both the white and grey matter of the spinal cord in all 4 forms of this disease. Although it was not possible to identify definitively the types of cells undergoing apoptosis, the size and location of some of the affected cells suggested that they were oligodendrocytes. As there is now a large body of evidence that T-cell-induced target cell death takes the form of apoptosis, it is attractive to hypothesize that oligodendrocyte apoptosis is occurring in EAE as a result of oligodendrocyte-directed T-cell cytotoxicity. However, other apoptotic cells were located within the myelin sheath, meninges and perivascular spaces and were clearly not oligodendrocytes but were most likely blood-derived mononuclear cells. The sparsity of their cytoplasm and the absence of phagocytosed material suggested that they were mainly lymphocytes rather than macrophages. Apoptosis has been shown to be involved in deleting autoreactive T-cells during the normal development of tolerance. Thus apoptotic deletion of myelin/oligodendrocyte-specific lymphocytes in the central nervous system in EAE might explain both the subsidence of inflammation and the acquisition of tolerance in this autoimmune disease

Etude des ondes de gravité dans l’atmosphère au moyen de ballons et de simulations

The goal of this thesis is to obtain a better knowledge of the atmospheric gravity waves in the atmosphere, of their sources and characteristics, and their propagation using balloon observations and modeling. The superpressure balloons (SPBs) used in this thesis are one of the best platforms to observe gravity waves, and allow us to retrieve the ensemble of their characteristics. High-resolution models provide a complete description of the flow, not only of the waves, but also of their sources. We have combined SPB measurements and modeling in order to describe the gravity waves and evaluate the gravity wave field in model outputs. Using the observations from PreConcordiasi (2010), the convective gravity waves are described in the Tropics during the whole campaign, and also for a case of developing Tropical Cyclone. Second, observations from the Concordiasi campaign (2010) allow us to quantify the realism of the resolved gravity wave field in the ECMWF analyses at high latitudes (Southern Hemisphere). A good geographical and seasonal agreement is found for the momentum fluxes and the intermittency. However, it is shown that the magnitude is underestimated in the ECMWF. Finally, we bring a contribution to the operational balloon campaigns, with a focus on the open stratospheric balloons, which constitute the greatest challenge for the CNES. For cases during the Strapol ́et ́e campaign, we show that the uncertainty on the final touchdown position of the balloons can be reduced using a simple setup that assimilates radiosoundings.L’objectif de cette thèse est d’obtenir une meilleure connaissance des ondes de gravité atmosphériques, de leurs sources et caractéristiques, et de leur propagation au moyen d’observations ballons et de simulations. Les ballons pressurisés (SPBs) utilisés dans cette thèse sont une des meilleures plateformes d’observations des ondes de gravité, et permettent d’obtenir l’ensemble de leurs caractéristiques. Les modèles à haute résolution donnent une description complète de l’écoulement, non seulement des ondes, mais aussi de leurs sources. Nous avons combiné mesures par SPBs et modélisation pour décrire les ondes de gravité et évaluer le réalisme des champs d’ondes de gravité dans des sorties de modèles. En s’appuyant sur les observations de PreConcordiasi (2010), les ondes de gravité convectives sont décrites aux Tropiques sur l’ensemble de la campagne, ainsi que sur un cas de cyclone tropical en développement. Dans un deuxième temps, les observations de la campagne Concordiasi (2010) nous permettent de quantifier le réalisme du champ d’onde de gravité résolu aux hautes latitudes (hémisphère sud) décrit dans les analyses de l’ECMWF. Un bon accord géographique et saisonnier est observé pour les flux de quantité de mouvement et l’intermittence. Cependant, il est montré que la magnitude des flux est sous-estimée dans les analyses de l’ECMWF. Enfin, une contribution aux campagnes opérationnelles ballons est apportée, en se focalisant sur les ballons stratosphériques ouverts qui sont le plus grand défi pour le CNES. Pour des cas d’étude lors de la campagne Strapolété (2009), nous montrons que l’incertitude sur la position de retombée des ballons peut être réduite dans une configuration simple en assimilant des observations par radiosondages

Gravity-wave characteristics derived from quasi-Lagrangian balloon flights in the stratosphere

Most of our observational knowledge of gravity waves in the atmosphere comes from vertical profiles performed by ground-based instruments (radar, lidar), radiosoundings or space-borne instruments. Superpressure balloon flights on the other hand provide the opportunity to sample the atmosphere along quasi-Lagrangian trajectories, like drifters in the oceans

The South Georgia Wave Experiment (SG-WEX): Radiosonde observations of gravity waves in the lower stratosphere. Part 1: Energy density, momentum flux and wave propagation direction

Gravity waves play a critical role in the transport of energy and momentum throughout the atmosphere. It has been suggested that small mountainous islands located in regions of strong winds may generate significant fluxes of these waves. Such fluxes would be important because these islands are not well resolved in global circulation models. Thus, there is a need to determine the magnitude and variability of gravity wave generated from such islands: South Georgia (54°S, 37°W) has the highest mountains of these islands. Here, we present the first report of gravity waves measured by radiosondes over South Georgia. The measurements were made in two intensive campaigns as part of the South Georgia Wave EXperiment (SG-WEX), a multi-instrument and modelling campaign investigating gravity waves above South Georgia. The two intensive radiosonde campaigns were held in 2015, one in January and one in June/July, totalling 89 successful launches. We use these new observations to determine gravity wave properties in the lower stratosphere. The summer campaign observed an average wave energy density (kinetic+potential+vertical) of 3.6 JKg-1 and an average pseudo-momentum flux of 2.3 mPa . In the winter campaign the values observed were larger; an average wave energy density of 8.4 JKg-1 and an average pseudo-momentum flux of 8.7 mPa . Strikingly, analysis reveals that in winter 66% of waves were propagating downwards, in summer only 8% did so. These results suggest that there may be additional sources of waves in the winter stratosphere. We propose that the differences between wave properties observed during the summer and winter campaigns are due to a complex combination of factors including differences in surface wind conditions (linked to orographic wave generation), frequency of storms and the proximity of the Polar stratospheric jet. These results demonstrate a large increase in gravity wave activity in winter above South Georgia

Study of the gravity waves in the atmosphere with balloons and simulations

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’obtenir une meilleure connaissance des ondes de gravité atmosphériques, de leurs sources et caractéristiques, et de leur propagation au moyen d’observations ballons et de simulations. Les ballons pressurisés (SPBs) utilisés dans cette thèse sont une des meilleures plateformes d’observations des ondes de gravité, et permettent d’obtenir l’ensemble de leurs caractéristiques. Les modèles à haute résolution donnent une description complète de l’écoulement, non seulement des ondes, mais aussi de leurs sources. Nous avons combiné mesures par SPBs et modélisation pour décrire les ondes de gravité et évaluer le réalisme des champs d’ondes de gravité dans des sorties de modèles. En s’appuyant sur les observations de PreConcordiasi (2010), les ondes de gravité convectives sont décrites aux Tropiques sur l’ensemble de la campagne, ainsi que sur un cas de cyclone tropical en développement. Dans un deuxième temps, les observations de la campagne Concordiasi (2010) nous permettent de quantifier le réalisme du champ d’onde de gravité résolu aux hautes latitudes (hémisphère sud) décrit dans les analyses de l’ECMWF. Un bon accord géographique et saisonnier est observé pour les flux de quantité de mouvement et l’intermittence. Cependant, il est montré que la magnitude des flux est sous-estimée dans les analyses de l’ECMWF. Enfin, une contribution aux campagnes opérationnelles ballons est apportée, en se focalisant sur les ballons stratosphériques ouverts qui sont le plus grand défi pour le CNES. Pour des cas d’étude lors de la campagne Strapolété (2009), nous montrons que l’incertitude sur la position de retombée des ballons peut être réduite dans une configuration simple en assimilant des observations par radiosondages.The goal of this thesis is to obtain a better knowledge of the atmospheric gravity waves in the atmosphere, of their sources and characteristics, and their propagation using balloon observations and modeling. The superpressure balloons (SPBs) used in this thesis are one of the best platform to observe gravity waves, and allow us to retrieve the ensemble of their characteristics. High-resolution models provide a complete description of the flow, not only of the waves, but also of their sources. We have combined SPB measurements and modeling in order to describe the gravity waves and evaluate the gravity wave field in model outputs. Using the observations from PreConcordiasi (2010), the convective gravity waves are described in the Tropics during the whole campaign, and also for a case of developing Tropical Cyclone. Second, observations from the Concordiasi campaign (2010) allow us to quantify the realism of the resolved gravity wave field in the ECMWF analyses at high latitudes (Southern Hemisphere). A good geographical and seasonal agreement is found for the momentum fluxes and the intermittency. However, it is shown that the magnitude is underestimated in the ECMWF. Finally, we bring a contribution to the operational balloon campaigns, with a focus on the open stratospheric balloons, which constitute the greatest challenge for the CNES. For cases during the Strapolété campaign, we show that the uncertainty on the final touchdown position of the balloons can be reduced using a simple setup that assimilates radiosoundings

Simulations of Rising Thermals Using a Lagrangian Stochastic Closure for the Subgrid Turbulent Fluxes

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Turbulent clouds are challenging to model and simulate due to uncertainties in processes occurring at unresolved subgrid scales (SGS). These processes include the transport of cloud particles, supersaturation fluctuations, turbulent mixing, and the resulting stochastic droplet activation and growth by condensation. In this work, we use a stochastic Filtered Density Function (FDF) particle method to describe both temperature and the amount of water vapor distribution at unresolved scales in rising thermals. The particle method is solved in combination with an Eulerian scheme (here we use the CM1 model, Bryan and Fritsch 2002). In this hybrid implementation, the particle method plays two important roles: (a) it models the SGS variability of the environment where cloud particles would activate and grow by condensation, and (b) it provides the SGS unresolved fluxes that close the filtered equations underlying the Eulerian scheme, devoid of any approximation. The hybrid algorithm is tested in 2D and 3D simulations of dry and moist thermals against schemes that use standard subgrid models (such as Deardorff&amp;amp;#8217;s parametrization of the eddy viscosity). Our simulations suggest that FDF models may expand the ability of Large Eddy Simulations to represent cloud entrainment and associated microphysical details at the edge of cumulus clouds. Furthermore, the intrinsic character of this particle-based method is also useful to study generation and reorientation of vorticity around and within thunderstorm clouds.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;</jats:p

Gravity waves generated by deep tropical convection: Estimates from balloon observations and mesoscale simulations

International audienceConvective gravity waves in the Tropics are studied by analyzing in situ measurements from long-duration stratospheric balloons launched during the PreConcordiasi campaign (2010) and mesoscale simulations. An improved temporal resolution of the observations as well as the balloon quasi-Lagrangian behavior allow an unprecedented investigation of the whole gravity wave spectrum. First, a case study of gravity waves generated by a developing cyclone, Tropical Storm Gelane (February 2010), is carried out using observations complemented by numerical simulations with the Weather Research and Forecast model, with a resolution down to 1 km. Distributions of momentum fluxes obtained from both data show reasonable agreement and emphasize waves with short wavelengths (&lt;15 km) and short periods (&lt;20 min). Still, some differences are also found, which can likely be related to errors of the modeled background flow. Second, observations from the whole PreConcordiasi flights are analyzed with an emphasis on gravity wave momentum fluxes. Their phase speed distribution has a robust shape, with maximum fluxes with near-zero ground-based phase speeds. Yet, significant momentum fluxes are also found for larger values, yielding a mean phase speed of about 27 ms-1. The momentum fluxes are concentrated in short episodes with intense values, and their intermittency is quantified using probability distribution functions and the Gini coefficient (0.5-0.6). The relative importance of convective and topographic sources are investigated, suggesting comparable intensities, but a greater occurrence frequency of convective events. Waves emitted by Tropical Storm Gelane do not stand out relative to other convective events. Key Points The whole gravity-wave spectrum is studiedin simulations and balloon data.Most momentum fluxes come from short-wavelength, short-period waves.Intermittency is quantified, a robust phase-speed distribution is found. ©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved