Linking Farmers to Markets through Modern Information and Communication Technologies in Kenya

This paper highlights a market information and linkage system (MILS) developed and tested by the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange Limited (KACE) that increases the efficiency of agricultural markets to work better for smallholder farmers and other small and medium sized agro-enterprises (SMEs). The MILS involves harnessing modern information and communication technologies (ICTs) to empower farmers with low-cost reliable and timely market information to enhance the bargaining power of the farmer for a better price in the market place, and to link the farmer to markets more efficiently and profitably. The components of the KACE MILS are (www.kacekenya.com): Rural based Market Information Points (MIPs) which are information kiosks located in rural markets, District-level Market Information Centres (MICs), Mobile Phone Short Messaging Service (SMS), Interactive Voice Response (IVR), Internet based database system, rural FM radio and the Central Coordinating Hub in Nairobi. KACE has adopted a business approach to the provision of its services: users pay for the services. For instance it charges: placement fees per initial offer or bid (US$1.5-15), commissions on concluded deals (0.5$ 65 for 6 months or US$125 for 12 months), fees to visiting foreign groups (US$ 2,000-5,000/visit) and revenue sharing agreements with SMS and IVR service providers. When the KACE MILS services are scaled out and widely used by many farmers and SMEs across Kenya, the system will generate sufficient revenue to sustain its services without reliance on development partner funding. To enhance the financial sustainability of the MILS services further, KACE has recently initiated two innovations: franchising MIPs and MICs to local entrepreneurs, and establishing a virtual trading floor to improve the matching of offers and bids through a rural-based FM Radio program. A recent study of the impact of the KACE MILS concluded that the proportion of farmers and traders that say their incomes has increased and their bargaining positions have improved is very high (75% farmers and 60% commodity traders). Furthermore, the study concluded that it was clear that during the years in which the KACE MILS has been operational, market integration improved for two commodities studied (i.e. maize and beans). This study also highlights the challenges faced by the KACE MILS, including poor infrastructure that imposes high transport costs to markets, high costs of mobile phone calls and SMS and small quantities of produce of varying quality offered. Keywords: Information and communication technology, innovations, Kenya,Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Consumer/Household Economics, Environmental Economics and Policy, Farm Management, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty, Institutional and Behavioral Economics, International Relations/Trade, Land Economics/Use, Marketing, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Research Methods/ Statistical Methods,

Response of cowpea genotypes to Alectra vogelii parasitism in Kenya

Cowpea is popular in Eastern Kenya where it is attractive to farmers because of its high economic value and the belief that it does not require many external inputs. Farmers are however discouraged to grow the crop in this region due to massive attack by a parasitic weed Alectra vogelii (Benth). Yield losses due to A. vogelii have being estimated to range from 50 to 100% in Mbeere, Kitui and Makueni districts. No single method however is available to farmers in these regions in control of the parasitic weed. Combining several control methods, as in the management of Striga spp in Western Kenya should be a sustainable option. Field studies were conducted in 2010 and 2011 at Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kiboko farm to determine the response of 143 cowpea genotypes to Alectra infestation. The aim for the study was to identify resistant genotypes that could be used in breeding programme. Significant differences were observed amongst cowpea genotypes in days to first Alectra emergence, number of Alectra shoots emerged at 6, 8, 10 and 12 week after planting and grain yield. Cowpea genotypes Kir/Nya-005 and Mbe/Mach-022 showed complete resistance to  Alectra while Ken-Kunde, M66 and K80 (all commercial varieties) supported the highest number of Alectra shoots. Grain yield loss in the three susceptible varieties was 80, 79 and 50% respectively. On the other hand, Sia/Cia-004, Mbe/Mach-014 and Kib-006 had high grain yields despite the high number of Alectra shoots present. There was a strong correlation (r = -0.57) between grain yield and number of Alectra shoots emerged at 12 weeks after planting. A significant negative (r = -0.37) correlation was also obtained between pod number per plant and number of emerged Alectra shoots at 12 weeks after planting. This negative correlation proves the high accumulation dry matter in the cowpea roots at the expense of the pods thus decreasing grain yield. This information showed that there is sufficient genetic variability in the cowpea genotypes studied, which can be exploited in breeding improved cowpea varieties for resistance to A. vogelii in Kenya. A great progress towards developing improved cowpea variety that meets farmer’s preferences with durable resistance to A. vogelii can be achieved if the genes from the resistant and tolerant local cowpea cultivars identified in this study could be introgressed into the adapted susceptible improved varieties. This will increase the potential impact of adoption of resistant cowpea varieties in the zones.Key words: Cowpea, Alectra vogelii, Resistance/tolerance and grain yield

Factors influencing smallholder farmers’ inputs use in major bean production corridors in Kenya

This study analysed socio-economic determinants for inputs use in major bean corridors in Kenya. It comprised 417 respondents sampled from four major bean corridors. A structured questionnaire was used in data collection. Probit model was used to assess determinants of input use among the bean-farming households. From the results, 74% of respondents were male with a mean age of 48.6 years. The probability of using agricultural inputs increased with education level and income from crop sales. Fertilizer was mainly used in Bomet (73%) and Narok (74%) counties. Eighty-five percent planted recycled seeds. Education level and Income from crops positively influenced inputs use. It was concluded that education level, incomes from sale of crops, livestock and livestock products, and farm income influenced use of inputs. As a recommendation, Capacity building on merits of input use and promotion of public-private partnerships to strengthen input supply system would enhance increased input use by smallholder farmers.Keywords: Bean, inputs, determinants, Keny

Seven-Year Efficacy of RTS,S/AS01 Malaria Vaccine among Young African Children

Background The RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine candidate is being evaluated for implementation. Methods We conducted 7 years follow-up of children who were randomized at age 5 to 17 months to receive three doses of either the RTS,S/AS01 vaccine or control vaccine (rabies). The endpoint was clinical malaria (temperature ≥37.5°C and infection with Plasmodium falciparum of ≥2500 parasites per µl). Each child’s malaria exposure was estimated using the prevalence of malaria among residents within a 2km radius of their homestead. Vaccine efficacy was defined as 1 minus the hazard ratio (HR) or incidence rate ratios (IRR) of the RTS,S/AS01 vaccinated versus rabies vaccinated groups. Results We identified 1002 clinical malaria episodes among 223 children randomized to RTS,S/AS01 and 992 clinical malaria episodes among 224 children randomized to control vaccination over seven years follow-up. Intention-to-treat vaccine efficacy (VE) was 4.4% (95%CI: -17 to 21.9, p value=0.67) and per-protocol VE was 7.0% (95%CI -14.5 to 24.6%, p=0.5) by negative binomial regression. VE waned over time (p=0.006 for the interaction between vaccination and time), including negative efficacy during the fifth year among children at higher malaria parasite exposure (-43.5%, 95%CI: -100.3 to -2.8, p value=0.033 by intention-to-treat and -56.8%, 95%CI -118.7 to -12.3, p=0.008 per-protocol). Conclusion A 3-dose vaccination with RTS,S/AS01 is initially protective against clinical malaria, but this is offset by rebound in later years in areas with higher malaria parasite exposure. Further data are needed on longer-term outcomes following four-dose vaccinations. </p

Estimating the cumulative effects of the nature-based tourism in a coastal dolphin population from southern Kenya

Due to the growth of nature-based tourism worldwide, behavioural studies are needed to assess the impact of this industry on wildlife populations and understand their short-term effect. Tourism impact on dolphin populations remain poorly documented in developing countries. This study investigates the effects of nature-based tourism on the behaviour of the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in southern Kenya. We used Markov chain models to estimate transition probabilities between behavioural states in the presence and absence of tourist boats, and assess the overall behavioural budgets. Based on these data and the tourism intensity in the area, we quantified the potential tourist boat disturbance over the period 2006-2013. Our results demonstrated that tourist boat interactions affected dolphins' behavioural budgets, with a significant decrease in the overall amount of time travelling and an increase in diving. The average duration of travelling and resting decreased significantly in the presence of boats. Although the cumulative tourism exposure was not significant for the dolphin population at their current levels, these impacts should be taken into consideration with the potential tourism growth in the area. This is particularly important if tourism reaches periods of high intensity, as we have shown that these periods could have a significant impact for the species, particularly where home-range and core areas are highly overlap by this activity. Understanding the effect of human disturbance variations from previous years may help to predict the consequences on dolphin populations, towards achieving a more ecological and economic sustainability of the activity

Multiple Sexual Partners and Condom use among 10 - 19 Year-olds in four Districts in Tanzania: What do we Learn?

Although some studies in Tanzania have addressed the question of sexuality and STIs among adolescents, mostly those aged 15 - 19 years, evidence on how multiple sexual partners influence condom use among 10 - 19 year-olds is limited. This study attempts to bridge this gap by testing a hypothesis that sexual relationships with multiple partners in the age group 10 - 19 years spurs condom use during sex in four districts in Tanzania. Secondary analysis was performed using data from the Adolescents Module of the cross-sectional household survey on Maternal, Newborn and Child Health (MNCH) that was done in Kigoma, Kilombero, Rufiji and Ulanga districts, Tanzania in 2008. A total of 612 adolescents resulting from a random sample of 1200 households participated in this study. Pearson Chi-Square was used as a test of association between multiple sexual partners and condom use. Multivariate logistic regression model was fitted to the data to assess the effect of multiple sexual partners on condom use, having adjusted for potential confounding variables. STATA (10) statistical software was used to carry out this process at 5% two-sided significance level. Of the 612 adolescents interviewed, 23.4% reported being sexually active and 42.0% of these reported having had multiple (> 1) sexual partners in the last 12 months. The overall prevalence of condom use among them was 39.2%. The proportion using a condom at the last sexual intercourse was higher among those who knew that they can get a condom if they want than those who did not. No evidence of association was found between multiple sexual partners and condom use (OR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.35 - 1.67, P = 0.504). With younger adolescents (10 - 14 years) being a reference, condom use was associated with age group (15 - 19: OR = 3.69, 95% CI = 1.21 - 11.25, P = 0.022) and district of residence (Kigoma: OR = 7.45, 95% CI = 1.79 - 31.06, P = 0.006; Kilombero: OR = 8.89, 95% CI = 2.91 - 27.21, P < 0.001; Ulanga: OR = 5.88, 95% CI = 2.00 - 17.31, P = 0.001), Rufiji being a reference category. No evidence of association was found between multiple sexual partners and condom use among adolescents in the study area. The large proportion of adolescents who engage in sexual activity without using condoms, even those with multiple partners, perpetuates the risk of transmission of HIV infections in the community. Strategies such as sex education and easing access to and making a friendly environment for condom availability are important to address the risky sexual behaviour among adolescents

Combining Rainwater Harvesting and Grass Reseeding to Revegetate Denuded African Semi-arid Landscapes

In African drylands, perennial grasses preferred by grazing livestock are disappearing at an alarming rate. This has led to recurrent livestock feed shortages threatening pastoralist’s livelihoods. Combining native grass reseeding and rainwater harvesting offers a viable and innovative solution to reverse this trend. However, studies to determine how biomass yields are affected by soil moisture availability attributed to in situ rainwater harvesting in African drylands are limited. We investigated how biomass yields of three grasses native to Africa, i.e., Enteropogon macrostachyus (Bush rye grass), Cenchrus ciliaris (African foxtail grass), and Eragrostis superba (Maasai love grass), are affected by soil moisture content in a typical semi-arid landscape. Rainwater harvesting structures included trenches, micro-catchments and furrows. Additionally, rain runoff was diverted from an adjacent road used as a catchment area. Soil moisture was measured between November 2018 and August 2019 using PlantCare Mini-Logger sensors installed at 40 and 50 cm depths and 0, 1, 5 and 15 m away from the trench. Quadrat method was used to determine biomass yields in August 2019. Peaks in soil moisture were observed after rainfall events. Soil moisture content gradually decreased after the rainy season, but was higher closer to the trench. This is attributed to the prolonged rainwater retention in the trenches. Biomass yields were in the order Eragrostis superba > Cenchrus ciliaris > Enteropogon macrostachyus. Biomass production was higher near the trenches for all the studied species. Sensitivity to soil moisture demonstrated by the magnitude to yield reduction during the growing season was in the order Eragrostis superba > Cenchrus ciliaris > Enteropogon macrostachyus. These results suggest that Eragrostis superba is more sensitive to drought stress than Enteropogon macrostachyus that is adapted to a wide range of soil moisture conditions. We demonstrated that in situ rainwater harvesting structures enhanced soil moisture availability and displayed great potential for revegetating denuded natural rangelands in semi-arid African landscapes. Thus, combining rainwater harvesting and reseeding techniques can produce measurable improvements in pastoral livelihoods and should be incorporated in dryland development policies in the region. Ultimately, incorporating such innovative strategies can strengthen the effectiveness of ecological restoration in African drylands to meet the objectives of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals.Peer reviewe

Repeated clinical malaria episodes are associated with modification of the immune system in children

The study received funding from the UK Medical Research Council, (MRC Programme grant #: MR/M003906/1). MB and AR are supported by the Wellcome Trust (Grant #: WT 206194).Background There are over 200 million reported cases of malaria each year, and most children living in endemic areas will experience multiple episodes of clinical disease before puberty. We set out to understand how frequent clinical malaria, which elicits a strong inflammatory response, affects the immune system and whether these modifications are observable in the absence of detectable parasitaemia. Methods We used a multi-dimensional approach comprising whole blood transcriptomic, cellular and plasma cytokine analyses on a cohort of children living with endemic malaria, but uninfected at sampling, who had been under active surveillance for malaria for 8 years. Children were categorised into two groups depending on the cumulative number of episodes experienced: high (≥ 8) or low (< 5). Results We observe that multiple episodes of malaria are associated with modification of the immune system. Children who had experienced a large number of episodes demonstrated upregulation of interferon-inducible genes, a clear increase in circulating levels of the immunoregulatory cytokine IL-10 and enhanced activation of neutrophils, B cells and CD8+ T cells. Conclusion Transcriptomic analysis together with cytokine and immune cell profiling of peripheral blood can robustly detect immune differences between children with different numbers of prior malaria episodes. Multiple episodes of malaria are associated with modification of the immune system in children. Such immune modifications may have implications for the initiation of subsequent immune responses and the induction of vaccine-mediated protection.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Human vaccination against RH5 induces neutralizing antimalarial antibodies that inhibit RH5 invasion complex interactions.

The development of a highly effective vaccine remains a key strategic goal to aid the control and eventual eradication of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. In recent years, the reticulocyte-binding protein homolog 5 (RH5) has emerged as the most promising blood-stage P. falciparum candidate antigen to date, capable of conferring protection against stringent challenge in Aotus monkeys. We report on the first clinical trial to our knowledge to assess the RH5 antigen - a dose-escalation phase Ia study in 24 healthy, malaria-naive adult volunteers. We utilized established viral vectors, the replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus serotype 63 (ChAd63), and the attenuated orthopoxvirus modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), encoding RH5 from the 3D7 clone of P. falciparum. Vaccines were administered i.m. in a heterologous prime-boost regimen using an 8-week interval and were well tolerated. Vaccine-induced anti-RH5 serum antibodies exhibited cross-strain functional growth inhibition activity (GIA) in vitro, targeted linear and conformational epitopes within RH5, and inhibited key interactions within the RH5 invasion complex. This is the first time to our knowledge that substantial RH5-specific responses have been induced by immunization in humans, with levels greatly exceeding the serum antibody responses observed in African adults following years of natural malaria exposure. These data support the progression of RH5-based vaccines to human efficacy testing