Assessing the potential for reopening a building stone quarry : Newbigging Sandstone Quarry, Fife

Newbigging Sandstone Quarry in Fife is one of a number of former quarries in the Burntisland- Aberdour district which exploited the pale-coloured Grange Sandstone from Lower Carboniferous rocks. The quarry supplied building stone from the late 19th century, working intermittently from 1914 until closure in 1937, and again when reopened in the 1970s to the 1990s. The stone was primarily used locally and to supply the nearby markets in the Scottish Central Belt. Historical evidence indicates that prior to sandstone extraction, the area was dominated by largescale quarrying and mining of limestone, and substantial sandstone quarrying is likely to have begun after the arrival of the main railway line in 1890. It is probable that removal of the sandstone was directly associated with limestone exploitation, and that the quarried sandstone was effectively a by-product of limestone production. Sandstone extraction was probably viable due to the existing limestone quarry infrastructure (workforce, equipment, transportation) and the high demand for building stone in Central Scotland in the late 19th century. The geology within Newbigging Sandstone Quarry is dominated by thick-bedded uniform sandstone with a wide joint spacing, well-suited for obtaining large blocks. However, a mudstone (shale) band is likely to be present within a few metres of the principal (north) face of the quarry, around which the sandstone bed thickness and quality is likely to decrease. The mudstone bed forms a plane sloping at a shallow angle to the north, so that expansion of the quarry in this direction is likely to encounter a considerable volume of poor quality stone. Additionally, an east-west trending fault is present approximately 100 metres north of the quarry face, which is also likely to be associated with poor quality (fractured) stone

Development of sustainable georesources for the built environment in the United Kingdom

The character of the UK’s built heritage has been largely determined by the country’s diverse geology. Indigenous natural stone forms a major component of the nation’s pre-1919 building stock. Stone has been used traditionally for roofing, roads, pavements, bridges, engineering works, and all forms of walling. Today it is mostly employed as thin panel cladding to concrete frameworks in modern construction and is now increasingly being used in large volumes for new city streetscapes.This paper outlines the material requirements for the repair and maintenance of the stone-built heritage and illustrates a range of initiatives across the UK aimed at safeguarding and redeveloping indigenous resources. The importance, particularly for the repair and conservation sector, of selecting appropriate replacement stone is being recognized by architectural and conservation professionals and by local authority officials. There is also increasing recognition of the importance to the economy of the local character of the built environment in terms of its value to tourism and to architectural, historical, and cultural identity. The paper also examines the historical sources of information on stone in the UK and offers recommendations for databasing and disseminating stone resource information. This may assist the redevelopment of a healthy indigenous stone industry and ensure that the unique built heritage character of the UK is maintained and enhanced

Assessing the potential for reopening a building stone quarry : King's Quarry, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire

The British Geological Survey (BGS) has been commissioned by the Scottish Stone Liaison Group to investigate the potential for reopening a number of former building stone sites from around Scotland under the project ‗Scottish Building Stone Resources‘. As part of this study, BGS was asked to undertake a general examination of the building stone resources at the King‘s Quarry, near Carronbridge, Thornhill in Dumfriesshire. The quarry lies within the Buccleuch Estates and is known to have had a long history of operation, having been active around the mid 19th and early 20th centuries, although likely to have produced stone since the 17th century. Today the quarry is periodically worked by the Buccleuch Group, on a small scale mostly for repairs and restoration of existing estate building in the district

The source of building stone for Westown Kirk, Perthshire : a geological and architectural investigation

BGS was asked by Andrew Driver on behalf of Perth and Kinross Heritage Trust to assist with an investigation into the origin of the stone masonry in Westown Kirk (Figs. 1 & 2). Certain characteristics of the building and architectural detailing suggest that the masonry may have been reused from another building and transported from elsewhere. The purpose of this report is to document some of the unusual features of the masonry, and to characterise the stone type in order to attempt to identify its provenance. It is understood that no documentary evidence exists relating to the source of the stone used in the church

An historical and geological assessment of a Scottish building stone quarry : Drumhead Quarry, Denny

Drumhead Quarry, situated a few kilometres north-east of Denny in the Central Belt of Scotland, is one of several quarries in the Falkirk area which exploited the Cowie Rock, a pale-coloured sandstone in the Upper Limestone Formation (Clackmannan Group). The quarry supplied building stone from the very early 18th century, working fairly consistently until the late 19th century. Historical evidence indicates that the stone was primarily used locally in the Falkirk and Stirling areas, until the opening of the Union Canal in 1822 which then allowed the sandstone to be shipped to Glasgow, Linlithgow and Edinburgh, mainly for use as paving stone. Drumhead sandstone was the first ever shipment along the Union Canal in 1822, landing in Edinburgh. The quarry was worked under several different operators throughout the 19th century and often shared the same operator as Thorneydyke Quarry (located c. 600m to the north) in the latter half of the 1800s. It was not uncommon for the quarry to be operated by local builders and architects, who were most likely to use the stone they were extracting from their own quarry as the main source of building material for their designed and built structures. Drumhead Quarry exposes thick-bedded sandstone with some bedding lamination and wide joint spacing, well-suited to extracting large blocks. The possibility that a unit of limestone - the Calmy Limestone - encroaches near to the quarry‘s east and north boundaries (and might limit the prospects for future expansion) has been recently tested by drilling boreholes. Limestone was not encountered in the drilling exercise, but units of mudstone and shale interbedded with sandstone to the east of the quarry indicate a change in the depositional environment of the sedimentary rocks in this area, and suggest the limestone might be nearby. A borehole to the north of the quarry encountered only sandstone in the bedrock, hence extending the quarry in this direction would appear to offer the best prospect of encountering good reserves of sandstone. Samples of Drumhead sandstone are quartz-rich, well compacted, and have a strong natural mineral cement resulting in a strongly cohesive (difficult to disaggregate) stone. The stone is therefore of good quality and likely to be durable. It has the potential to be a versatile building stone, suited to a range of uses including rubble walling, high quality ashlar and carving. There are two main varieties of the sandstone: a buff variety with faint-to-strong bedding lamination, and an off-white, freestone (uniform) variety. All of these factors will enhance the commercial viability of the stone. The two varieties of Drumhead stone should provide a good substitute for a number of sandstones that were formerly sourced and used widely in the Central Belt, but are now unavailable. Sandstone of this type is in particular demand in the Stirling, Glasgow and Linlithgow areas

Safeguarding Glasgow's stone built heritage skills and materials requirements : facade surveys and building stone analysis

This report presents the results of a study commissioned by the Scottish Stone Liaison Group on behalf of Scottish Enterprise Glasgow (SEG). The work was undertaken in order to provide data on the quantities of replacement building stone and the amount of time and skills levels required for stone masons, for the repair and maintenance of the stone built heritage of the City of Glasgow over the next twenty years (2006 to 2026). The study was undertaken by the British Geological Survey, overseen by an external project director and guided by a project Steering Group appointed by the Scottish Stone Liaison Group. This study is Project B: ‘Buildings Health Check’, forming part of the project ‘Safeguarding Glasgow’s Stone Built Heritage: Skills and Materials Requirements’. The project is funded by Scottish Enterprise Glasgow, with contributions by Glasgow City Council, The work has involved the survey of the facades of over 230 traditional stone buildings and monuments in Glasgow in order to assess the amount, type and severity of stone decay. In order to do this, a methodology was developed which involved the use of rectified digital images overlaid with measured areas of different stone decay categories. Calculation of stone quantities and stonemason requirements was undertaken by an external consultant appointed by the Steering Group. A range of buildings of different type, facade orientation, stone type and from different parts of the city were included in order to ensure that the sample of surveyed buildings is representative of Glasgow’s stone heritage

Developing a future repairs strategy for a sandstone city : a petrographic investigation of building stone in Glasgow, Scotland

Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and has some of the finest historic stone architecture in the United Kingdom. All the building stone quarries in the Glasgow area are closed and stone for repairs is now imported. Six types of ‘blonde’ sandstone and four types of ‘red’ sandstone have been identified from petrographic analysis of 126 samples from traditional buildings throughout the city. Currently available stone types from active quarries have been identified which have similar characteristics, in order to ensure compatibility of long-term performance for repairs. A number of the original sandstone types do not match with stone currently being quarried, and there is a need to reopen historic quarries, or new quarries which can supply similar stone. The data provide a framework to improve decision-making in the selection of appropriate stone for repairs to ensure the future long-term health of historic buildings in the city of Glasgow

A desktop resource assessment of building stone and slate on the Island of Bute

Bute has a varied geology, resulting from the presence of the Highland Boundary Fault which crosses the island and brings metamorphic rocks of the Scottish Highlands into contact with Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Central Belt. The island also has abundant igneous intrusions of various generations, mostly fine-grained, dark basaltic rocks. This diverse geology is reflected in buildings across the island which used local stone and slate, bringing a distinctive character to the built heritage of Bute. Over sixty stone quarries are recorded on Bute. Most of these exploited igneous rock, likely to have been used for roadstone. Large-scale production of building stone was probably limited to Rothesay, where an igneous intrusion at Longhill Quarry provided block for buildings in the town. This ‘greenstone’ was used extensively in buildings up to the mid to late 19th century, when imported sandstone became increasingly used. In rural areas, buildings were typically constructed from the closest available stone type, obtained from any suitable outcrops or small quarries. Dressed stone, sourced from blonde and red sandstone, was also used for early buildings throughout Bute. These sandstones were probably obtained from unrecorded quarries in the Devonian and Carboniferous sediments of the S and E parts of the island

A building stone audit for Kilmarnock : surveying, matching, and sourcing stone for the built heritage

Surveys of the condition of the stone masonry in twenty-five buildings and structures in the John Finnie and Bank Street Conservation Area in Kilmarnock have provided information to guide forthcoming grant-aided repairs and inform future maintenance strategies. Stone samples from each surveyed structure have been characterised in order to identify the original stone types, and are matched to stone from currently active quarries to ensure that appropriate stone is used for the repairs. Kilmarnock’s historic stone buildings directly reflect the local geology, providing a strong ‘sense of place’. The changing use of stone through time has contributed to the evolution of architectural styles that document different stages in the town’s history. The earliest buildings and structures used locally-sourced blonde sandstone with whinstone, probably obtained from nearby surface outcrops and boulders. Subsequently, better quality blonde sandstone was obtained from several town quarries, notably Dean Quarry which provided large quantities of stone in the first half of the 19th century. Once connected to the wider railway network, red sandstone was imported from the Mauchline area, providing higher quality stone that enabled a more ambitious architecture in the second half of the 19th century, reflecting the increasing prosperity of the town. Although red sandstone dominated from this time, a few notable buildings used imported blonde freestone for high quality ashlar and decorative work. The condition surveys show that the principal reason for damage to stone is water penetration, leading to surface soiling (biogenic growth) and scaling of the masonry surface. A major cause of water penetration is lack of maintenance, in particular failing rainwater goods. Much of the damage is associated with exposed and projecting masonry elements such as cornices, string courses and sills, which require repair or replacement in order to protect the adjacent masonry and ensure long-term survival of the stonework. The use of de-icing salts on roads and pavements has caused considerable salt contamination to masonry at ground level resulting in disaggregation of stone. Damage due to previous stonecleaning has caused loss of masonry details, significantly degrading the appearance of several buildings. Today all of the original stone quarries that supplied Kilmarnock are closed. Petrographic analysis of the masonry samples has identified the closest matching stone types from currently available quarries throughout the UK. The best way of ensuring compatible stone is to reopen the original quarries. Most of the original quarry sites cannot be reopened, so areas of adjacent geology have been identified which could provide sites for the renewed production of stone. The results from this study are intended to guide the repair of masonry and ensure that appropriate replacement stone is selected for repairs, as well as highlighting the importance of maintenance. This information is relevant to other buildings in Kilmarnock and the surrounding district, as well as the wider Central Scotland area. The reopening of stone quarries would provide a sustainable source of appropriate stone to ensure the conservation of the built heritage in Kilmarnock and East Ayrshire

“Plastic” repair of natural stone in Scotland:perceptions and practice

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to address the issue of perceptions of suitability of different materials for a repair. The use of highly cementitious materials in the repair of historic masonry is causing great concern due to their incompatibility with adjacent stone and the associated accelerated deterioration which results from their use. The relatively recent development of so‐called “restoration mortars” based on a “mix and go” application, combined with the enhanced weathering of stone in a changing climate, may be contributing to the use of “plastic” repair materials on stone across Scotland.Design/methodology/approachFollowing a literature review, case studies of repairs are presented to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of using such materials, and comparisons are made with the alternative options.FindingsThe case studies presented highlight the use of a number of different stone repair materials, sometimes in combination with stone replacement, representing functional and philosophical approaches to masonry repair. However, the research has also highlighted the increasing use of plastic repairs for large‐scale repair including façade rendering, which fail to incorporate these systematic and informed approaches, and can ultimately lead to failure of repairs.Originality/valueAn evaluation of the current standing of the materials, methods and the extent of this type of repair, is vital for the substantiation of further research, and to enhance the empirical knowledge of in‐use performance, longevity and failure. The increasing emergence of restoration mortars, and their manufacture and supply on an international scale, highlights the global impact and relevance of this research.</jats:sec