MUNICIPAL SUSTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT: MINIMISING THE IMPACT OF STRUCTURAL DEYELOPMENT ON LAND RESOURCES

A large number of the legał, spatial planning, fiscal-political, awareness- forming, and enlightening approaches used to stem the consumption of land resources in Germany are welł known to the professional community. This text will introduce an approach which is capable to integrate the concepts which are availabłe at the local leveł of mediation. A stringent municipal sustainability management (MSM) program with a defined organizational structure will be presented to the municipalities as a means of morę efficiently and effectively organizing the entire framework of activity, and in particułar the relationships between the social actors, at the local level. This approach strives not only to provide a sustainableland resources management program, but also a comprehensive sustainable development program within the municipality. &nbsp

Species–area relationships on small islands differ among plant growth forms

Aim: We tested whether species–area relationships of small islands differ among plant growth forms and whether this influences the prevalence of the small-island effect (SIE). The SIE states that species richness on small islands is independent of island area or relates to area in a different way compared with larger islands. We investigated whether island isolation affects the limits of the SIE and which environmental factors drive species richness on small islands. Location: Seven hundred islands (< 100 km2) worldwide belonging to 17 archipelagos. Major taxa studied: Angiosperms. Methods: We applied linear and breakpoint species–area models for angiosperm species richness and for herb, shrub and tree species richness per archipelago separately, to test for the existence of SIEs. For archipelagos featuring the SIE, we calculated the island area at which the breakpoints occurred (breakpoint area) and used linear models to test whether the breakpoint areas varied with isolation. We used linear mixed-effect models to discern the effects of seven environmental variables related to island area, isolation and other environmental factors on the species richness of each growth form for islands smaller than the breakpoint area. Results: For 71% of all archipelagos, we found an SIE for total and herb species richness, and for 59% for shrub species richness and 53% for tree species richness. Shrub and tree species richness showed larger breakpoint areas than total and herb species richness. The breakpoint area was significantly positively affected by the isolation of islands within an archipelago for total and shrub species richness. Species richness on islands within the range of the SIE was differentially affected by environmental factors across growth forms. Main conclusion: The SIE is a widespread phenomenon that is more complex than generally described. Different functional groups have different environmental requirements that shape their biogeographical patterns and affect species–area and, more generally, richness–environment relationships. The complexity of these patterns cannot be revealed when measuring overall plant species richness.Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100004350Peer Reviewe

Species-richness patterns of the living collections of the world's botanic gardens: a matter of socio-economics?

Background and Aims The botanic gardens of the world are now unmatched ex situ collections of plant biodiversity. They mirror two biogeographical patterns (positive diversity-area and diversity-age relationships) but differ from nature with a positive latitudinal gradient in their richness. Whether these relationships can be explained by socio-economic factors is unknown. Methods Species and taxa richness of a comprehensive sample of botanic gardens were analysed as a function of key ecological and socio-economic factors using (a) multivariate models controlling for spatial autocorrelation and (b) structural equation modelling. Key Results The number of plant species in botanic gardens increases with town human population size and country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person. The country flora richness is not related to the species richness of botanic gardens. Botanic gardens in more populous towns tend to have a larger area and can thus host richer living collections. Botanic gardens in richer countries have more species, and this explains the positive latitudinal gradient in botanic gardens' species richness. Conclusions Socio-economic factors contribute to shaping patterns in the species richness of the living collections of the world's botanic garden

The relationship between chlorophyllous spores and mycorrhizal associations in ferns: evidence from an evolutionary approach

Premise: Approximately 14% of all fern species have physiologically active chlorophyllous spores that are much more short-lived than the more common and dormant achlorophyllous spores. Most chlorophyllous-spored species (70%) are epiphytes and account for almost 37% of all epiphytic ferns. Chlorophyllous-spored ferns are also overrepresented among fern species in habitats with waterlogged soils, of which nearly 60% have chlorophyllous spores. Ferns in these disparate habitat types also have a low incidence of mycorrhizal associations. We therefore hypothesized that autotrophic chlorophyllous spores represent an adaptation of ferns to habitats with scarce mycorrhizal associations. Methods: We evaluated the coevolution of chlorophyllous spores and mycorrhizal associations in ferns and their relation to habitat type using phylogenetic comparative methods. Results: Although we did not find support for the coevolution of spore type and mycorrhizal associations, we did find that chlorophyllous spores and the absence of mycorrhizal associations have coevolved with epiphytic and waterlogged habitats. Transition rates to epiphytic and waterlogged habitats were significantly higher in species with chlorophyllous spores compared to achlorophyllous lineages. Conclusions: Spore type and mycorrhizal associations appear to play important roles in the radiation of ferns into different habitat types. Future work should focus on clarifying the functional significance of these associations. Keywords: arbuscular mycorrhizae; chlorophyllous spores; correlated evolution; dark septate endophytes; epiphytes; grammitid; green spores; pteridophyte

Nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria act as a global filter for plant establishment on islands

Island biogeography has classically focused on abiotic drivers of species distributions. However, recent work has highlighted the importance of mutualistic biotic interactions in structuring island floras. The limited occurrence of specialist pollinators and mycorrhizal fungi have been found to restrict plant colonization on oceanic islands. Another important mutualistic association occurs between nearly 15,000 plant species and nitrogen-fixing (N-fixing) bacteria. Here, we look for evidence that N-fixing bacteria limit establishment of plants that associate with them. Globally, we find that plants associating with N-fixing bacteria are disproportionately underrepresented on islands, with a 22% decline. Further, the probability of N-fixing plants occurring on islands decreases with island isolation and, where present, the proportion of N-fixing plant species decreases with distance for large, but not small islands. These findings suggest that N-fixing bacteria serve as a filter to plant establishment on islands, altering global plant biogeography, with implications for ecosystem development and introduction risks

DISTRIBUTION OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES IN DIFFERENT LAND-USE SYSTEMS IN SUMATERA, INDONESIA

Disturbances caused by the conversion of rain forests into agricultural systems provide an opportunity for the expansion of Invasive Plant Species (IPS). Bukit Duabelas National Park is one of the few remaining lowland forests in Jambi Province (Sumatera, Indonesia). The surrounding areas up to the national park borders have already been converted into jungle rubber agroforests as well as rubber and oil palm plantations which might lead to an increased spread of IPS into the forest. This study was aimed at compiling a list of IPS and determining their distribution and coverage of IPS in four land use systems (rain forest jungle rubber, rubber and oil palm plantations). Spatial distribution patterns were investigated by creating a horizontal vegetation profile diagram for the permanent plots of the EFForTS project (Ecological and Socioeconomic Functions of Tropical Lowland Rainforest Transformation Systems, http://www.uni-goettingen.de/crc990). The dominance of IPS was determined using Important Value Index. A total of forty IPS were identified across the four land-use systems. The numbers of IPS were the highest in oil palm (28 species) and rubber plantations (27 species), and the lowest in jungle rubber (10 species). IPS were absent in the lowland rain forest. The diversity of IPS was influenced by environmental factors, especially canopy openness. IPS with the highest ground coverage were Dicranopteris linearis and Clidemia hirta. Both of them were found in all three land-use systems outside the rain forest when the forest canopy opens due to illegal logging or other human disturbances. Therefore, reforestation of disturbed areas is recommended to prevent the spread of IPS

Environmental heterogeneity predicts global species richness patterns better than area

Aim It is widely accepted that biodiversity is influenced by both niche‐related and spatial processes from local to global scales. Their relative importance, however, is still disputed, and empirical tests are surprisingly scarce at the global scale. Here, we compare the importance of area (as a proxy for pure spatial processes) and environmental heterogeneity (as a proxy for niche‐related processes) for predicting native mammal species richness world‐wide and within biogeographical regions. Location Global. Time period We analyse a spatial snapshot of richness data collated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Major taxa studied All terrestrial mammal species, including possibly extinct species and species with uncertain presence. Methods We applied a spreading dye algorithm to analyse how native mammal species richness changes with area and environmental heterogeneity. As measures for environmental heterogeneity, we used elevation ranges and precipitation ranges, which are well‐known correlates of species richness. Results We found that environmental heterogeneity explained species richness relationships better than did area, suggesting that niche‐related processes are more prevalent than pure area effects at broad scales. Main conclusions Our results imply that niche‐related processes are essential to understand broad‐scale species–area relationships and that habitat diversity is more important than area alone for the protection of global biodiversity

Introduction history mediates naturalization and invasiveness of cultivated plants

AimSpecies characteristics and cultivation are both associated with alien plant naturalization and invasiveness. Particular species characteristics are favoured for cultivation, obscuring the relationship between traits and naturalization success. We sought to better understand the drivers of naturalization and invasiveness by analysing relationships with species characteristics and cultivation and by disentangling the direct effects of characteristics from the indirect effects mediated by cultivation.LocationGreat Britain.Time periodc. 1000–present.Major taxa studiedSeed plants.MethodsWe used a comprehensive dataset of 17,396 alien plant taxa introduced to Great Britain before 1850, a country with one of the most well-documented histories of plant introductions. We integrated this with cultivation data from historical and modern records from botanic gardens and commercial nurseries and with trait data. Accounting for time since introduction, we quantified the influences of cultivation and species characteristics on present-day naturalization and invasiveness in Great Britain.ResultsLarger native range size, earlier flowering, long-lived herbaceous growth form, and outdoor cultivated habitat were all associated with naturalization. However, these relationships between characteristics and naturalization largely reflected cultivation patterns. The indirect, mediating influence of cultivation on naturalization varied among species characteristics, and was relatively strong for growth form and weak for native range size. Cultivation variables, particularly availability in present-day nurseries, best explained invasiveness, while species characteristics had weaker associations.Main conclusionsHuman influence on species introduction and cultivation is associated with increased probability of naturalization and invasiveness, and it has measurable indirect effects by biasing the distribution of species characteristics in the pool of introduced species. Accounting for human cultivation preferences is necessary to make ecological interpretations of the effects of species characteristics on invasion.<br/

Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas

High resolution information on climatic conditions is essential to many applications in environmental and ecological sciences. Here we present the CHELSA Climatologies at high resolution for the earths land surface areas data of downscaled model output temperature and precipitation estimates of the ERA Interim climatic reanalysis to a high resolution of 30 arc seconds. The temperature algorithm is based on statistical downscaling of atmospheric temperatures. The precipitation algorithm incorporates orographic predictors including wind fields, valley exposition, and boundary layer height with a subsequent bias correction. The resulting data consist of a monthly temperature and precipitation climatology for the years 1979 to 2013. We compare the data derived from the CHELSA algorithm with other standard gridded products and station data from the Global Historical Climate Network. We compare the performance of the new climatologies in species distribution modelling and show that we can increase the accuracy of species range predictions. We further show that CHELSA climatological data has a similar accuracy as other products for temperature but that its predictions of precipitation patterns are better