Patent Systems for Encouraging Innovation: Lessons from Economic Analysis

Economic theory views patents as policy instruments aimed at fostering innovation and diffusion. Three major implications are drawn regarding current policy debates. First, patents may not be the most effective means of protection for inventors to recover R&D investments when imitation is costly and first mover advantages are important. Second, patentability requirements, such as novelty or non-obviousness, should be sufficiently stringent to avoid the grant of patents for inventions with low social value that increase the social cost of the patent system. Third, the trade-off between the patent policy instruments of length and breadth could be used to provide sufficient incentives to develop inventions with high social value. Beyond these three implications, economic theory also pleads for a mechanism design approach: an optimal patent system could be based on a menu of different degrees of patent protection where stronger protection would involve higher fees, allowing self-selection by inventors.Patent subject matter, patentability requirements, sequential innovation, incentive mechanism, license fee

From R&D to Productivity Growth: Do The Institutional Setting and The Source of Funds of R&D Matter?

This paper presents estimates of the long-term impact of various sources of knowledge (R&D performed by the business sector, the public sector and foreign firms) on multifactor productivity growth of 16 countries from 1980 to 1998. The main results show that the three sources of knowledge are significant determinants of long term productivity growth. Further evidence suggests that several factors determine the extent to which each source of knowledge contributes to productivity growth. These factors are the absorptive capability, the origin of funding, the socio economic objectives of government support, and the type of public institutions that perform R&D.Science and technology policies, R&D, spillovers, growth

Financing technology transfer

Global policy discussions increasingly focus on innovation and the knowledge economy as a driver of long-term growth. In parallel new forms of innovation processes are emerging, notably open innovation and innovation networks stressing the importance of connections between various stakeholders. Links between universities and the business sector are of particular importance as many inventions come out of universities but have to be further developed to become economically relevant innovations. New financing instruments and attracting private investors to technology transfer (TT) are necessary but difficult as the patterns of risk and information in this “in-between area” is complex: Technology is not basic anymore and it requires large amounts of capital to be scaled up – with uncertain market prospects. This paper addresses new financial instruments for TT, building on European Investment Fund’s experience in this field.Technology Transfer; Financing; Innovation; Commercialisation; Funding gap; Patents; Licensing; Intellectual Property

Patent Systems for Encouraging Innovation: Lessons from Economic Analysis

International audienceEconomic theory views patents as policy instruments aimed at fostering innovation and diffusion. Three major implications are drawn regarding current policy debates. First, patents may not be the most effective means of protection for inventors to recover R&D investments when imitation is costly and first mover advantages are important. Second, patentability requirements, such as novelty or non-obviousness, should be sufficiently stringent to avoid the grant of patents for inventions with low social value that increase the social cost of the patent system. Third, the trade-off between the patent policy instruments of length and breadth could be used to provide sufficient incentives to develop inventions with high social value. Beyond these three implications, economic theory also pleads for a mechanism design approach: an optimal patent system could be based on a menu of different degrees of patent protection where stronger protection would involve higher fees, allowing self-selection by inventors

Harmonizing and Combining Large Datasets – An Application to Firm-Level Patent and Accounting Data

This paper discusses methods for the harmonization and combination of large-scale patent and trademark datasets with each other and other sources of data. Dictionary- and rule-based approaches to the consolidation of applicant names in patent data are presented and shown to have both benefits and drawbacks in isolation. We combine the two methods and develop a set of rules and dictionaries to consolidate European, Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) and US patent data with firm accounting data. The resulting data encompass about 131,000 patent applicant names from 46 countries, covering 58.8 percent of EPO applications and 50.6 percent of PCT applications by business organizations during the time period from 1979 to 2008. For US data, the resulting dataset includes around 54,000 assignee names and 51.3 percent of US granted patents during approximately the same time period.

: Gender differences in STEMI

International audienceBACKGROUND: Gender differences in presentation, management and outcome in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) have been reported. AIM: To determine whether female gender is associated with higher inhospital mortality. METHODS: Data from ORBI, a regional STEMI registry of 5 years' standing, were analysed. The main data on presentation, management, inhospital outcome and prescription at discharge were compared between genders. Various adjusted hazard ratios were then calculated for inhospital mortality (women versus men). RESULTS: The analysis included 5000 patients (mean age 62.6±13 years), with 1174 women (23.5%). Women were on average 8 years older than men, with more frequent co-morbidities. Median ischaemia time was 215 minutes (26 minutes longer in women; P<0.05). Reperfusion strategies in women less frequently involved fibrinolysis, coronary angiography, radial access and thrombo-aspiration. Female gender, especially in patients aged<60 years, was associated with poorer inhospital prognosis (including higher inhospital mortality: 9% vs. 4% in men; P<0.0001), and underutilization of recommended treatments at discharge. Moreover, excess female inhospital mortality was independent of presentation, revascularization time and reperfusion strategy (hazard ratio for women 1.33, 95% confidence interval 1.01-1.76; P=0.04). CONCLUSIONS: One in four patients admitted for STEMI was female, with significant differences in presentation. Female gender was associated with less-optimal treatment, both in the acute-phase and at discharge. Efforts should be made to reduce these differences, especially as female gender was independently associated with an elevated risk of inhospital mortality

COVID-19 symptoms at hospital admission vary with age and sex: results from the ISARIC prospective multinational observational study

Background: The ISARIC prospective multinational observational study is the largest cohort of hospitalized patients with COVID-19. We present relationships of age, sex, and nationality to presenting symptoms. Methods: International, prospective observational study of 60 109 hospitalized symptomatic patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 recruited from 43 countries between 30 January and 3 August 2020. Logistic regression was performed to evaluate relationships of age and sex to published COVID-19 case definitions and the most commonly reported symptoms. Results: ‘Typical’ symptoms of fever (69%), cough (68%) and shortness of breath (66%) were the most commonly reported. 92% of patients experienced at least one of these. Prevalence of typical symptoms was greatest in 30- to 60-year-olds (respectively 80, 79, 69%; at least one 95%). They were reported less frequently in children (≤ 18 years: 69, 48, 23; 85%), older adults (≥ 70 years: 61, 62, 65; 90%), and women (66, 66, 64; 90%; vs. men 71, 70, 67; 93%, each P &lt; 0.001). The most common atypical presentations under 60 years of age were nausea and vomiting and abdominal pain, and over 60 years was confusion. Regression models showed significant differences in symptoms with sex, age and country. Interpretation: This international collaboration has allowed us to report reliable symptom data from the largest cohort of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19. Adults over 60 and children admitted to hospital with COVID-19 are less likely to present with typical symptoms. Nausea and vomiting are common atypical presentations under 30 years. Confusion is a frequent atypical presentation of COVID-19 in adults over 60 years. Women are less likely to experience typical symptoms than men

Croissance endogène : les principaux mécanismes

Endogenes Wachstum: die wichtigsten Mechanismen, von Dominique Guellec. Neuen Theorien zuf olge ist die bisher als exogen betrachtete Produktivitätssteigerung auf endogène Faktoren zurückzuführen. Die Verhaltensweisen der Wirtschaftssubjekte, insbesondere bei der Investition, haben nachhaltige Auswirkungen auf die Wachstumsrate der Produktion. Die Art der Investition kann variieren: physisches Kapital, Ausbildung, Forschung und Entwicklung usw. Aufgrund von Skalenerträgen, die bei der Herstellung der Produktionsfaktorenzw/nwufert konstant vorhanden sind, ist dieser Mechanismus immer möglich, der manchmal auch auf Externalitäten im Zusammenhang mit der Verbreitung von Wissen beruht.Endogenous Growth: The Main Mechanisms, by Dominique Guellec. New theories are endeavouring to render productivity progress endogenous. It was previously considered to be exogenous. The behaviour of agents, especially in investment, persistently affects the production growth rate. The content of investment varies to cover such items as physical assets, education and research and development. The mechanism is always made feasible by the presence of returns to scale that are at least constant in the production of output factors and sometimes relies on externalities linked to the diffusion of knowledge.Croissance endogène : les principaux mécanismes, par Dominique Guellec. De nouvelles théories visent à endogénéiser le progrès de la productivité, auparavant considéré comme exogène. Les comportements des agents, notamment d'investissement, ont des effets persistants sur le taux de croissance de la production. Le contenu de l'investissement peut varier : capital physique, éducation, recherche et développement... Le mécanisme est toujours permis par la présence de rendements d'échelle au moins constants dans la production des facteurs de production, et repose parfois sur des externalités liées à la diffusion du savoir.Crecimiento endógeno : mecanismos principales, por Dominique Guellec. Existen nuevas teorías que tienen por propósito endogeneizar el progreso de la productividad anteriormente considerado como endógeno. Los comportamientos de los agentes, y fundamentalrnente la inversión, tienen efectos persistentes sobre la tasa de crecimiento de la producción. El contenido de la inversión puede variar : capital físico, education, investigación y desarrollo. El mecanismo siempre está permitido por la presencia de rendimientos de escala que son, por lo menos, constantes en la producción de los factores de producción y se funda a veces en externalidades vinculadas con la difusión del saber.Guellec Dominique. Croissance endogène : les principaux mécanismes. In: Économie & prévision, n°106, 1992-5. Développements récents de la macro-économie. pp. 41-50