Gender and Leadership: an Approach to the Differences between Women and Men in Management

When a group of persons begins to interact, various differences between the members begin to appear. The pattern of relationships change according to the nature of the task and the most influential person became to be the leader. The aim of the present work is study whether men and women leader are fundamentally different or similar, reviewing the different relationships that exist when a group agrees a division of labour, roles, and responsibilities. It is also important to explore how the way of leadership influences the evolution of the whole group. Leaders must be chosen because of the characteristics that they possess. They should be seen as best suited to lead in particular situations and when negotiation and diplomacy are needed, interpersonal skills may outweigh the value of a dominant leader. In line with these, traditional feminine behaviour could be favoured in new business scenarios

Fair Trade Wines in Germany

131 p. Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Germany.It was conducted a research in order to estimate the willingness to pay for Fair Trade wines in Germany. The study was carried out completing 93 surveys of wine drinkers in Göttingen and around Germany. It was also an aim of the study, to collect which are some driving ideas of the consumers about Fair Trade and the attitude of them over the Fair Traded wines. The consumers provide diverse information about frequency and amount of bottles for each wine purchase. Regarding to the preferences of the wines, red and conventional production is the preferred by the consumers, with a strong choice over fruity and dry wines with intense colors and in preference in the classical 0,75 L bottle. About the wine brands recalling, in general terms there is a high no response rate and confusion between brands, varieties and DOCs. In the scheme of the certifications, the Bio production Logo (German norm) was recognized by the 92,5 % of the sample, against a 49,5% who knows about the Fair Trade Logo (TransFair). About this, in general terms, the acceptance of the idea of Fair Trade is important and trustful for the consumers, and for the core of them, this means the 63% of the sample, the wine preferences are focused on small producers suppliers, more than wineries with social projects, not caring about the origin country and where the political engagement is more important than the religious one. In general terms are able to pay 0,5 € more than another similar option, value which was taken as an estimation for the Fair Trade premium price. In the targeting pricing and costing of this niche market, there was found three segments: the basic one, who is able to pay up to 3 € per bottle; followed by the standard-medium, between 3,5 € and 4,29 €, and a high one over the 6,49 € up to 10 €. As well as the ranges from 3,5 € to 6,49 € are covered by the current offer, but there is space to growth with the 3 € wines and 10 € wines. For the first case is proposed avoid some costs exporting bulk wine and bottling in Germany, and for the other a delicate work with farmers in order to achieve the necessary quality for the market

Intra-household effects of ENSO related drought in lowland farm households in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

137 p. Georg-August-University of Göttingen, GermanyThe principal aim of the present study is to define the intra-household impact of El Niño 2002 on time and food allocation. Moreover, to determine how the roles of men and women were affected. This study focused at the intra – household level, since the effect of El Niño 2002 on the household was previously determined by Keil (2004). Thereby, the study contributes to achieve a more detail understanding of El Niño impact in the year 2002. The realization of the study was within the focus of the IMPENSO project (Impact of El Niño-Southern Oscillation). The study is composed of two parts. The first part refers to the quantitative study, and the second part to the qualitative study. As Keil (2004) concluded, the highest impact of El Niño 2002 was localized in three lowland villages in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Therefore, the quantitative study was based on a random sample of 96 household, used by Keil (2004). Meanwhile, the qualitative study was based on 3 different research methods. The number of respondents of each one corresponds to: 18 in-depth interviews, 3 focus groups and 9 key informants’ semi-structure interviews. Therefore, by applying qualitative and quantitative methods it was approached the same phenomenon from different analysis. Thus, the results and explanations obtained from the analyses, led us to stronger conclusions than if it would be applied a single method.In order to analyse the data, the study was sub-divided in two parts. Firstly, the quantitative analysis consists of the time allocation analysis and the food allocation analysis. Secondly, the qualitative analysis was divided into in-depth interviews analysis, focus groups analysis and key informants’ analysis. Both parts derive and conclude about the same issues. These issues are the differentiated effect of El Niño 2002 on men and women, on the age of the household members and on the wealth strata of the household members. In order to identify the possible impact of El Niño in the year 2002, it was compared to the non-El Niño year nearest to the year when the present research was done. The activities and food selected were based on the results from Keil (2004). Thereby, the analyses are concentrated on the most affected activities. These activities were the rice production, temporary employment, maize production, cocoa production and other activities. These ‘other activities’ comprised several activities, which were not as important as the above mentioned, regarding the amount of time allocated and the quantity of household members engaged. However, these did have importance due to they represent the diversity of activities in the research area. Furthermore, they represent the differentiated effect of El Niño 2002 on time allocation.The food allocation analysis consists of the change on consumption of rice, maize, rice mixed with rice, cassava, vegetables, banana, fish, chicken and beef. The effect of El Niño 2002 on food allocation depended on the kind of food. Therefore, there were foods consumed in more quantity during El Niño 2002 than 2004, such as rice mixed with maize and cassava. On the other hand, other foods were consumed in less quantity during El Niño 2002 than 2004, such as fish and rice. Furthermore, the qualitative research found that women were in charge of allocating the food within the household. Therefore, the wife gave priority on food allocation to other members to consume the staple foods like rice. For instance, in some situations during El Niño 2002, the wife reduced the amount consumed of some foods like rice, chicken or beef. On its place she increased the amount of other foods like banana (instead of rice), more quantity of vegetables. Thereby, that fact caused during El Niño 2002 a detrimental food allocation towards women.The time allocation impact of El Niño 2002 depended on the kind of activity. Therefore, in temporary employment, maize production, construction worker, fishing and the collection of rattan more hours have been worked during El Niño 2002 than in 2004. On the other hand, crops as rice, banana and chilli production perceived a reduction of hours worked during El Niño 2002. Furthermore, El Niño 2002 reduced the time that women were outside the house. Additionally, a minimum change in men’s participation in the daily tasks has been observed. On the other hand, men’s principal obligation sometimes implied the mobilization to other places, a fact that was accepted in the society; meanwhile women had less spatial mobility. Moreover, new and more diverse activities were fulfilled during El Niño 2002. Furthermore, the effect of El Niño 2002 pushed for the incremental participation of women in self-employment outside the agriculture. Therefore future local decisions should take into account the new alternatives activities developed since El Niño 2002. In which the participation of women has been incremented. Moreover, there were differences between villages regarding the effect of El Niño 2002 on the intra-household allocation of time and food. The analysed effects of El Niño 2002 on time and food allocation among the household members are strongly recommended to be included in future decisions in development projects within the research area. This has the aim to focus the attention on the household members that were most affected, especially on the activities and foods that the present study addresses. Furthermore, special attention must be given to women, the poorest and poor household member

Las restricciones funerarias en la legislación ateniense del siglo VI : el papel de la mujer

Las restricciones funerarias de Atenas en época de Solón tienen como objetivo limitar las manifestaciones públicas ostentatorias de las familias aristocráticas de la ciudad, que se expresaban posiblemente, además de en los entierros, en la fiesta de las Genesias o de los gene, que conmemoraban a sus ancestros particulares por los que poseían la eugenia. Las restricciones en los funerales de la legislación soloniana se complementaban, por tanto, con la transformación de las Genesias en un festival común a todos los ciudadanos atenienses que conmemoraban, ya no de forma individual y competitiva, si no colectivamente a los ancestros (Erecteo y Gea) de todo el nuevo cuerpo cívico definido por el legislador. Las restricciones de las manifestaciones públicas de la muerte recogen, además posiblemente un cambio en la forma de percibir y acercarse a la misma, producto de un largo proceso que desemboca en época arcaica en un alejamioento de la muerte del espacio de los vivos.____________________________Les restrictions funéraires d'Athénes en époque archatque ont pour bout limiter les manifestations publiques ostentatoires des familles aristocratiques, exprimées dans les funérailles, mais aussi possiblement á la fete des Genesias, ou des gene qui commémoraient leurs ancétres particuliers par lesquelles ils possedaient leur eugeneia. Les restrictions funéraires sont donc complémentaires des transformations des Genesias réalisées par Solon qui les établit comme une ocassion pour commémorer colléctivement les ancétres (Erechtheus et Ge) de tout le nouveau corps civique défini par le législateur. Les restrictions des manifestations publiques de la mort montre aussi possiblement un changement de la perception et de l'attitude envers la mort, produit d'un long procés par lequel la mort et les morts sont éloignés de l'espace des vifs á l'époque archaique

Afrodita y los fenicios en el Egeo

The expansion of Aphrodite’s cult for Greece from Cyprus was a complex phenomenon that lasted during the Dark Age and Archaic Period. The Phoenicians and their trade routes, frequented by Greeks, Phoenicians and Cypriots, played, undoubtedly, an important role in the expansion of the cult since the X Century BC. The Phoenicians left a notable stamp in Greek-Cypriot Aphrodite’s worship, and influenced, together with other factors, the mythological and cultic development of some features of the Goddess, since undoubtedly, her relation with the war.La expansión del culto de Afrodita por Grecia, desde Chipre, fue un fenómeno complejo y prolongado en el tiempo que se dio en época oscura y arcaica. En este proceso, sin duda, jugaron un papel importante los fenicios y las rutas comerciales transitadas por ellos, por chipriotas y griegos desde el s. X a.C. Los fenicios dejaron una impronta reseñable en el culto greco-chipriota de Afrodita, e influyeron, junto con otros factores, en la elaboración mitológica y cultual de algunos rasgos de la diosa, como sin duda, su relación con la guerra

Eficiencia energética y de emisiones GHG en la industria manufacturera chilena: análisis sectorial, regional y temporal a través de DEA

62 P.Chile ha presentado un importante aumento en la demanda energética, específicamente, en las últimas dos décadas el consumo de energía ha aumentado considerablemente. Una de las principales causas de este incremento es el crecimiento económico que ha experimentado el país. Analizando las principales fuentes de consumo energético que existen en el país, se obtiene que los sectores que mantienen los niveles más altos en consumo son industria y minería, es por esto que esta investigación se enfoca realizar un análisis temporal de eficiencia energética en el sector industrial y regional chileno, entre los años 1995 y 2010. Con esto se definen regiones e industrias que practican el uso eficiente de combustibles y que mantienen una evolución en su productividad constante, identificando también la fuente de ineficiencia de cada región y sector industrial.Para realizar los análisis de eficiencia, en esta investigación se integran distintas herramientas cuantitativas, siendo éstas: modelos DEA, incorporando tres formas diferentes de tratar las salidas no deseadas; restricciones a los pesos, con el fin de incluir juicios de valor a los factores del análisis, para así establecer una mayor importancia a los factores relacionados a la contaminación, frente a los factores económicos; e índices Malmquist, para los análisis intertemporales. Hasta ahora no existen análisis, utilizando estas herramientas, que demuestren el estado medioambiental en el que se encuentra Chile. Esta investigación busca llenar el vacío que existe al respecto, generando distintos análisis que permitan determinar la eficiencia energética en los sectores industriales y regiones. Los principales resultados obtenidos se describen a continuación. Con respecto a los modelos utilizados, se determina que es necesario un estudio y análisis de la naturaleza de los datos, con el fin de escoger el modelo más adecuado a ellos, según las bases y supuestos que presenta cada modelo. Las regiones que muestran mayores índices de eficiencia son Coquimbo, La Araucanía y Aysén, mientras que las regiones que presentan menores índices de eficiencia son Tarapacá, Antofagasta y Biobío. Los sectores industriales más eficientes son equipos de comunicaciones, metálica básica y prendas de vestir, mientras que los sectores industriales que muestran menores índices de eficiencia son alimentos y bebidas, textiles y minerales no metálicos. La estructura del artículo comienza con la introducción donde se contextualiza el tema, se realiza la revisión de la literatura y se proponen los objetivos del estudio. En la sección 2 se describe la metodología de la investigación, junto a los datos y factores relevantes para el análisis. La sección 3 presenta los resultados obtenidos y la discusión de los mismos. Finalmente, en la sección 4 se describen las conclusiones de esta investigación./ABSTRACT: Chile has presented a significant increase in energy demand; particularly, energy consumption has increased considerably in the last two decades. One of the main causes for this increase is the economic growth experienced by the country. Analyzing the main sources of energy consumption in the country, we find that the sectors that maintain the highest levels of consumption are industry and mining. For this reason, this research carries out a temporal analysis of energy efficiency for the Chilean industrial sector and for country regions, from 1995 until 2010. In this way, we determine regions and industries with best practices in fuel use and with a constant evolution in their productivities. In addition, we estimate inefficiency sources for each region and industrial sector. For doing the efficiency analysis, in this research different quantitative tools are integrated, being the following: DEA models, incorporating three different ways of dealing with undesirable outputs; restrictions on the weights, in order to include value judgments factors analysis in order to establish greater importance to factors related to pollution, compared to economic factors; and Malmquist indices for intertemporal analysis. So far no analysis using these tools, proving that the environmental state that is Chile. This research seeks to fill the gap in this regard, generating various analyzes to determine the energy efficiency in industrial sectors and regions. The main results obtained are described below. With regard to models, it is determined that a study and analysis of the nature of the data, in order to choose the most appropriate model to them as bases and assumptions that presents each model is necessary. Regions showing higher rates of efficiency are Coquimbo, La Araucania and Aysen, while the regions with lower rates of efficiency are Tarapaca, Antofagasta and Biobío. The most efficient industries are communications equipment, primary metals and clothing, while industrial sectors that show lower rates of efficiency are food and beverages, textiles and non-metallic minerals. The structure of the article begins with the introduction where the topic is contextualized, the literature review is performed and the objectives of the study are proposed. In section 2 the research methodology, along with data and analysis relevant to the factors described. Section 3 presents the results and the discussion of them. Finally, in Section 4 the conclusions of this research are described

La Sisactía de Solón y el juramento de los heliastas

La liberación del demos ateniense, sumido en una situación de dependencia y progresiva esclavización en Atenas arcaica, se asoció, con Solón, al culto a un dios, Zeus con el epíteto Eleutherios, y se garantizó mediante el establecimiento de las nuevas leyes y de la Heliea, cuyos miembros realizaban un juramento, instaurado en estos momentos, en el que significativamente se incluye también a Zeus con el epíteto Basileus (protector de las leyes en la poesía de Solón), junto a Apolo Patroos y Deméter. La relación del demos, ahora libre, con Zeus (Eleutherios y Basileus) que garantiza esa libertad adquirida, se fundamenta posiblemente en un vínculo anterior de los campesinos esclavizados del Ática con este dios, que se establece en el ágora nueva como expresión del consenso que se pretendía instaurar ante la situación se stasis.__________________________________La libération du demos athénien, soumis á une situation de dependance et progressive esclavage dans 1'Athénes archaique, fut associée par Solon au culte d'un dieu, Zeus avec 1'épithéte Eleutherios. Cette libération fut assurée par 1'établissement des nouveaux lois et de I'Héliée dont le serment incluait Zeus Basileus (protecteur des lois dans la poésie de Solon), avec Apolo Patroos et Déméter. La relation du demos, maintenant libre, avec Zeus (Eleutherios et Basileus), garant de cette liberté acquise, se fonde probablement sur un lien antérieur des paysans réduits en esclavage avec ce dieu qui s'installe dans 1'agora comme expression du consesus devant la situation de stasis.The liberation of the Athenian demos, immersed in a dependency situation and progressive enslavement in archaic Athens, was associated with Solon, to the cult to a Gog, Zeus, with the epithet Eleutherius, and was guaranteed by the establishment of the new laws and the Heliea, whose members made an oath, in which Zeus is also significantly included with the epithet Basileus (protector of the laws in Solon’s poetry), along with Apollo, Patroos and Demeter. The relation of the demos, now free, with Zeus (Eleutherius and Basileus) that guarantees that freedom, is possibly based on an earlier link of the enslaved peasants of Attica with this God, which is established in the new Agora as expression of the consensus that was intended to establish before the situation of stasis

Socioeconomic comparison between organic and traditional coffee growers in Puyango, Loja Province, Ecuador

147 p.This study is concerned with comparisons between organic and traditional coffee growing in Puyango, Ecuador, in social and economic terms. The main social variables considered were housing, education, health and migration; and the financial and economic indicators analyzed were variable costs, gross margin and net present value (NPV) and its sensitivity under risk using Latin Hypercube simulation analysis. Through a regression analysis using a Probit model it was determined that the perception of farmers influences positively the adoption; organic farmers think that organic coffee is more profitable, helps the environment and is healthier than traditional coffee. Meanwhile total coffee hectares and technical education influence negatively the adoption process. The analysis of cost of production showed higher costs for organic production, and it is more labor intensive than the traditional system. The financial analysis for a 10 year period indicates that organic coffee presents higher net present value than traditional coffee. This results hold true with or without inclusion of additional income derived from other tree crops planted in the coffee plantation. It was found that the additional income from other tree crops is very important for both type of growers, and that these tree crops reduce overall income risk irrespective of growing system. The Latin Hypercube simulation analysis demonstrates that organic coffee carries less risk than the traditional coffee. The frequency of agricultural risk faced by farmers is similar, except for the production risk for which organic farmers said they are faced more frequently by such risk. As for the coping measures, differences were found for off-farm work, belt tightening and holding of liquid assets. However, for diversification, use of savings and use of loans no significant differences between the two types of coffee growers were found. The variables housing, health and migration show similar distribution among the two types of farmers, suggesting that the higher income from organic coffee production has not yet impacted these measures of living standard

El culto de Afrodita armada en Amiclas (Esparta) y la fundación de Tarento

La existencia y el protagonismo de un culto de Afrodita armada en Esparta se destaca especialmente durante el alto arcaísmo, lo que pudo verse reflejado, entre otros lugares, en Amiclas; los rasgos “orientales” de la diosa se integran perfectamente en su personalidad y, sobre todo, su faceta como diosa armada debe entenderse en el contexto de las relaciones sociales y específicamente de las relaciones entre los sexos en estos momentos de formación de la ciudad en vinculación con la formación y delimitación (también ideológica) de la ciudadanía, de la que quedan al margen o excluidos sectores de la población, como las mujeres o los Partenias que parten, según una versión desde Amiclas, hacia Tarento._______________________________________The existence and protagonism of a cult of armed Aphrodite in Sparta is especially relevant in the Archaism, besides other places, in Amyklai. The “oriental” features of the Goddess are perfectly integrated in their personality and, over all, the role as an armed Goddess must be understood in the context of the social relations and specifically of the relationships between men and women in these moments of polis formation, linked also with the formation and delimitation (and also ideological definition) of the citizenship; some sectors of the population are excluded of the citizenship, as the women or the Partheniai who leave to Tarent, in one version of the tradition, from Amyklai

Agricultural potential in Latin America and Caribbean for biofuels for transport

93 p.The present study presents a general assessment of the productive capacity of Latin American countries for producing biomass1. Biomass can be transformed in secondary liquid energy carriers like biodiesel and bioethanol, fossil fuels substitutes. The document begins with the description of the characteristics of currently used energy crops2 world wide. A specific analysis of Latin American productive conditions was then carried out to determine if the region has the potential to reach, at least, 5% blend levels3. The land availability and energy crop yields for biomass production were also projected for the year 2025, together with two alternative raw materials i.e. waste crops and field residues. Finally, the effects of a demand increase; producer subsidy and price support on energy crop markets were assessed. It was determined that most of Latin American countries could produce sufficient biomass to reach 5% blends. There is land availability for biomass production in 2025 mostly in South American countries. Potentially attainable blends of most Latin American countries for the year 2025, using biomass from agricultural energy crops, are between 30% and 91% for biodiesel, and between 20% and 206% for bioethanol. Blend estimates from forestry biomass are even higher and from residues are much lower. The “price support” measure causes the highest net welfare gain in Latin America countries (1.844 Mill. US$) as well as in the Rest of the World (1.623 Mill. US$) , whereas the demand shift provokes in the Rest of the World a net welfare loss of 761 Mill. US$