The Prairie Naturalist Manuscript Submission Guidelines

These guidelines present The Prairie Naturalist (PNAT) policies and procedures for submitting scientific manuscripts for consideration for publication. In January 2009, a change in Editorial staff occurred and these guidelines address the ongoing transition and update the online Suggestions for Contributors guidelines provided on the PNAT website (http://www.fhsu.edu/biology/pn/prairienat.htm); these instructions supersede all previous guidelines. Tables and appendices are included for common word expressions with superfluous wording, examples of correct format and style guidelines for tables accompanying manuscripts, guidance in properly preparing Research Articles and Notes, citing literature, and mandatory abbreviations for tables, figures and parenthetical expressions

Survival of White-Tailed Deer Fawns in the Grasslands of the Northern Great Plains

Environmental factors, such as forest characteristics, have been linked to fawn survival in eastern and southern white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) populations. In the Great Plains, less is known about how intrinsic and habitat factors influence fawn survival. During 2007-2009, we captured and radiocollared 81 fawns in north-central South Dakota and recorded 23 mortalities, of which 18 died before 1 September. Predation accounted for 52.2% of mortality; remaining mortality included human (hunting, vehicle, and farm accident; 26.1%) and hypothermia (21.7%). Coyotes (Canis latrans) accounted for 83.3% of predation on fawns. We used known-fate analysis in Program MARK to estimate summer (15 May-31 Aug) survival rates and investigated the influence of intrinsic and habitat variables on survival. We developed 2 a priori model sets, including intrinsic variables and a test of annual variation in survival (model set 1) and habitat variables (model set 2). Model set 1 indicated that summer survival varied among years (2007-2009); annual survival rates were 0.94 (SE = 0.06, n = 22), 0.78 (SE = 0.09, n = 27), and 0.54 (SE = 0.10, n = 32), respectively. Model set 2 indicated that survival was further influenced by patch density of cover habitats (Conservation Reserve Program [CRP]-grasslands, forested cover, and wetlands). Mean CRPgrassland and wetland patch density (no. patches/100 ha) were greater (P \u3c 0.001) in home-range areas of surviving fawns (xcRPPD = 1.81, SE = 0.10, n = 63; XWe,PD = 1.75, SE = 0.14, n = 63, respectively) than in home-range areas of fawns that died (xcRPPD = 0.16, SE = 0.04, n = 18; XWe,PD = 1.28, SE = 0.10, n = 18, respectively). Mean forested cover patch density was less (P \u3c 0.001) in home-range areas of surviving fawns (fycpn = 0.77, SE = 0.10, n = 63) than in home-range areas of fawns that died (XF CPD = 1.49, SE = 0.21, n = 18). Our results indicate that management activities should focus on CRP-grassland and wetland habitats in order to maintain or improve fawn survival in the northern Great Plains, rather than forested cover composed primarily of tree plantings and shelterbelts

Disease and Predation: Sorting out Causes of a Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis) Decline

Estimating survival and documenting causes and timing of mortality events in neonate bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) improves understanding of population ecology and factors influencing recruitment. During 2010–2012, we captured and radiocollared 74 neonates in the Black Hills, South Dakota, of which 95% (70) died before 52 weeks of age. Pneumonia (36%) was the leading cause of mortality followed by predation (30%). We used known fate analysis in Program MARK to estimate weekly survival rates and investigate the influence of intrinsic variables on 52-week survival. Model {S1 wk, 2–8 wks, \u3e8 wks} had the lowest AICc (Akaike’s Information Criterion corrected for small sample size) value, indicating that age (3-stage age-interval: 1 week, 2–8 weeks, and \u3e8 weeks) best explained survival. Weekly survival estimates for 1 week, 2–8 weeks, and \u3e8 weeks were 0.81 (95% CI = 0.70–0.88), 0.86 (95% CI = 0.81–0.90), and 0.94 (95% CI = 0.91–0.96), respectively. Overall probability of surviving 52 weeks was 0.02 (95% CI = 0.01–0.07). Of 70 documented mortalities, 21% occurred during the first week, 55% during weeks 2–8, and 23% occurred \u3e8 weeks of age. We found pneumonia and predation were temporally heterogeneous with lambs most susceptible to predation during the first 2–3 weeks of life, while the greatest risk from pneumonia occurred from weeks 4–8. Our results indicated pneumonia was the major factor limiting recruitment followed by predation. Mortality from predation may have been partly compensatory to pneumonia and its effects were less pronounced as alternative prey became available. Given the high rates of pneumonia-caused mortality we observed, and the apparent lack of pneumonia-causing pathogens in bighorn populations in the western Black Hills, management activities should be geared towards eliminating contact between diseased and healthy populations

Influence of Habitat and Intrinsic Characteristics on Survival of Neonatal Pronghorn

Increased understanding of the influence of habitat (e.g., composition, patch size) and intrinsic (e.g., age, birth mass) factors on survival of neonatal pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) is a prerequisite to successful management programs, particularly as they relate to population dynamics and the role of population models in adaptive species management. Nevertheless, few studies have presented empirical data quantifying the influence of habitat variables on survival of neonatal pronghorn. During 2002–2005, we captured and radiocollared 116 neonates across two sites in western South Dakota. We documented 31 deaths during our study, of which coyote (Canis latrans) predation (n = 15) was the leading cause of mortality. We used known fate analysis in Program MARK to investigate the influence of intrinsic and habitat variables on neonatal survival. We generated a priori models that we grouped into habitat and intrinsic effects. The highest-ranking model indicated that neonate mortality was best explained by site, percent grassland, and open water habitat; 90-day survival (0.80; 90% CI = 0.71–0.88) declined 23% when grassland and water increased from 80.1 to 92.3% and 0.36 to 0.40%, respectively, across 50% natal home ranges. Further, our results indicated that grassland patch size and shrub density were important predictors of neonate survival; neonate survival declined 17% when shrub density declined from 5.0 to 2.5 patches per 100 ha. Excluding the site covariates, intrinsic factors (i.e., sex, age, birth mass, year, parturition date) were not important predictors of survival of neonatal pronghorns. Further, neonatal survival may depend on available land cover and interspersion of habitats. We have demonstrated that maintaining minimum and maximum thresholds for habitat factors (e.g., percentages of grassland and open water patches, density of shrub patches) throughout natal home ranges will in turn, ensure relatively high (\u3e0.50) neonatal survival rates, especially as they relate to coyote predation. Thus, landscape level variables (particularly percentages of open water, grassland habitats, and shrub density) should be incorporated into the development or implementation of pronghorn management plans across sagebrush steppe communities of the western Dakotas, and potentially elsewhere within the geographic range of pronghorn

Buteo Nesting Ecology: Evaluating Nesting of Swainson’s Hawks in the Northern Great Plains

Swainson’s hawks (Buteo swainsoni) are long-distance migratory raptors that nest primarily in isolated trees located in areas of high grassland density. In recent years, anthropogenic conversion of grassland habitat has raised concerns about the status of the breeding population in the northern Great Plains. In 2013, we initiated a study to investigate the influence of extrinsic factors influencing Swainson’s hawk nesting ecology in north-central South Dakota and south-central North Dakota. Using ground and aerial surveys, we located and monitored nesting Swainson’s hawk pairs: 73 in 2013 and 120 in 2014. We documented 98 successful breeding attempts that fledged 163 chicks; 1.52 and 1.72 fledglings per successful nest in 2013 and 2014, respectively. We used Program MARK to evaluate the influence of land cover on nest survival. The top model, SDist2Farm+%Hay, indicated that nest survival (fledging at least one chick) decreased as nests were located farther from farm sites and as the percent of hay cover increased within 1200-m of the nest site (34.4%; 95% CI = 27.6%–42.3%). We used logistic regression analysis to evaluate the influence of landscape variables on nest-site selection; Swainson’s hawks selected for nest sites located closer to roads. We suggest that tree belts associated with farm sites, whether occupied or not, provide critical breeding sites for Swainson’s hawks. Additionally, poor breeding success may be related to the late migratory behavior of this species which requires them to occupy marginal habitat due to other raptors occupying the most suitable habitat prior to Swainson’s hawks arriving to the breeding grounds

Spatial Ecology and Survival of Swainson\u27s Hawks (Buteo swainsoni) in the Northern Great Plains

In recent years, anthropogenic conversion of grassland habitat has raised concerns about the status of breeding Swainson\u27s Hawks (Buteo swainsoni) in the northern Great Plains region of North America. During 2013–2014, we captured breeding Swainson\u27s Hawks in north-central South Dakota and south-central North Dakota to estimate home-range size, determine adult survival rates during the breeding season, and evaluate habitat selection. We captured, radio-tagged, and monitored 13 Swainson\u27s Hawks in 2013, and captured two additional Swainson\u27s Hawks in 2014. In 2014, seven of 13 individuals initially captured in 2013 returned to the same breeding territory for the 2014 breeding season. Average 95% MCP home-range size in 2013 was 205.4 ha (SD = 135.3 ha, n = 10) and 211.1 ha (SD = 208.8 ha, n = 9) in 2014, and size did not differ between years (t13 = 0.07, P = 0.95), averaging 208.3 ha (SD = 244.9 ha, n = 19 home ranges measured for 12 birds) for the 2 yr of the study. Mean core home-range size (50% MCP) was 78.2 ha (SD =105.9 ha, n = 10) in 2013 and 59.7 ha (SD = 80.7 ha, n = 9) in 2014; core home-range areas also did not differ between years (t17 = −0.46, P = 0.65). Swainson\u27s Hawks did not select habitats in proportion to their availability in 2013 (χ42 = 781.99, P \u3c 0.001) and 2014 (χ40 \u3e 999.99, P \u3c 0.001). In 2013, breeding Swainson\u27s Hawks selected against wetland and grassland habitats and selected for trees as foraging habitats. Similarly, Swainson\u27s Hawks selected against grassland habitats for foraging in 2014. We used known-fate analysis in Program MARK to estimate adult survival during the breeding season. The top-ranked model indicated survival was constant at 0.94 (95% CI = 0.68–0.99) during the breeding season and did not differ between years. Our results suggest that Swainson\u27s Hawks maintain a moderately high degree of breeding-site fidelity and have home ranges smaller than those documented elsewhere, and that their home-range size is influenced positively by the presence of grasslands and negatively by development

Bed-Site Selection by Neonatal White-tailed Deer in Central North Dakota

Understanding bed-site selection and vegetation characteristics provides valuable information for population management (Verme 1977, Huegel et al. 1985a, Nelson and Woolf 1987). Predation and other natural-caused mortalities of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) neonates are most likely to occur within the first 60 days of life; a time period when selected habitat characteristics are vital to survival (Verme 1977, Huegel et al. 1985a, Nelson and Woolf 1987, Grovenburg et al. 2010). Prior to the study of Grovenburg et al. (2010), limited research had been completed on bed-site selection of neonatal white-tailed deer in the grasslands of the Northern Great Plains. In north-central South Dakota, increase in vertical height of vegetation was the most important habitat characteristic at bed sites, which likely pertained directly to protection from predation and thermal insulation (Grovenburg et al. 2010, 2012a). Our objective was to describe the physical and vegetative characteristics of bed sites selected by neonatal white-tailed deer in the grassland dominated landscape of central North Dakota. We hypothesized that neonatal whitetailed deer would select bed sites characterized by relatively high understory vegetation to moderate ambient temperatures resulting in favorable microclimates for maintaining thermal neutrality while providing concealment from predator

NOTES: BED-SITE SELECTION BY NEONATAL WHITE-TAILED DEER IN CENTRAL NORTH DAKOTA

Understanding bed-site selection and vegetation characteristics provides valuable information for population management (Verme 1977, Huegel et al. 1985a, Nelson and Woolf 1987). Predation and other natural-caused mortalities of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) neonates are most likely to occur within the first 60 days of life; a time period when selected habitat characteristics are vital to survival (Verme 1977, Hue- gel et al. 1985a, Nelson and Woolf 1987, Grovenburg et al. 2010). Prior to the study of Grovenburg et al. (2010), limited research had been completed on the bed-site selection of neonatal white-tailed deer in the grasslands of the Northern Great Plains. In north-central South Dakota, increase in vertical height of vegetation was the most important habitat characteristic at bed sites, which likely pertained directly to protection from predation and thermal insulation (Grovenburg et al. 2010, 2012a). Our objective was to describe the physical and vegetative characteristics of bed sites selected by neonatal white-tailed deer in the grassland dominated landscape of central North Dakota. We hypothesized that neonatal white-tailed deer would select bed sites characterized by relatively high understory vegetation to moderate ambient temperatures resulting in favorable microclimates for maintaining thermal neutrality while providing concealment from predators. We studied neonatal white-tailed deer in Burleigh County in central North Dakota, which comprised an area of 2,652 km2. The study area was located within the Northwestern Glaciated Plains level III Ecoregion (Bryce et al. 1998) and was characterized by significant surface irregularity and high concentration of wetlands (United States Department of Agriculture 2011). Long-term (30-year) mean summer temperatures ranged from 13.1° C to 27.5° C and mean (30- year) annual precipitation was 44.9 cm (North Dakota State Climate Office 2012). Nearly all land within the region was used for agricultural purposes. Grasslands and croplands dominated the landscape at 66.2% and 21.0%, respectively. Additionally, wetlands and water comprised 7.4%, developed land 5.2%, and other land uses \u3c1% of the landscape (United States Department of Agriculture 2011). Furthermore, Burleigh County had 4,884 ha in Wildlife Management Areas, 6,844 ha in National Wildlife Refuges, and 4,546 ha in Waterfowl Production Areas (C. Penner, North Dakota Game and Fish Department, personal communication)

Influence of ecologic factors on prevalence of meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) infection in South Dakota, USA

The meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) is a nematode parasite that commonly infects white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; WTD) throughout the deciduous forest biome and deciduous-coniferous ecotone of eastern and central North America; the species is not known to occur west of the grassland biome of central North America. We used county-specific prevalence data to evaluate potential effects of landscape and climatologic factors on the spatial distribution of meningeal worm infection in South Dakota, US. Probability of infection increased 4-fold between eastern and western South Dakota and 1.3-fold for each 1-cm increase in summer precipitation. Sixty-three percent of WTD had only a single worm in the cranium. Expansion of meningeal worm infection across western South Dakota may be inherently low due to the combined effects of arid climate and potential attributes of the Missouri River that limit regional movements by infected WTD. Use of landscape genetic analyses to identify potential relationships between landscape features and population genetic structure of infected deer and parasites may contribute to a greater understanding of regional heterogeneity in meningeal worm infection rates across South Dakota, particularly in counties adjacent to the Missouri River. Future research evaluating heterogeneity in prevalence and intensity of infection between fawn and yearling deer, and the potential role of yearling male deer as dispersal agents of meningeal worms across the Missouri River, also is warranted

Microhabitat Selection by Bobcats in the Badlands and Black Hills of South Dakota, USA: A Comparison of Prairie and Forested Habitats

An understanding of habitat selection is important for management of wildlife species. Although bobcat (lynx rufus) resource selection has been addressed in many regions of the United States, little work has been conducted in the Northern Great Plains. From 2006- 2008 we captured and radiocollared 20 bobcats in the Badlands (n = I 0) and Black Hills (n = I 0) regions of South Dakota. During the summers of 2008 and 2009 we collected habitat measurements at 349 ( 176 Badlands, 176 Black Hills) bobcat locations and 321 ( 148 Badlands, 173 Black Hills) random sites. Microhabitat characteristics at bobcat use sites varied with region (P \u3c 0.001) and sex of bobcat (P \u3c 0.00 I). Percent slope, shrub, low cover, medium cover, and total cover were greater (P :S 0.017) at bobcat locations in the Black Hills than in the Badlands whereas distance to drainage was greater (P \u3c 0.001) at locations in the Badlands than in the Black Hills. In the Badlands, male bobcat locations were closer (P :S 0.002) to prairie dog towns and drainages and had greater (P \u3c 0.05) percent forbs and forb height than random sites, whereas females were closer to badland formations (P \u3c 0.00 I) than random sites. In the Black Hills, male locations were at greater elevation (P \u3c 0.00 I) and female locations were characterized by greater (P :S 0.02) grass height, shrub height, low cover, and total cover than random sites. Logistic regression indicated that microhabitat selection was similar between study areas; odds ratios indicated that odds of bobcat use increased by 0.998 (95% CI = 0.997-0.999) per I m increase in distance to drainage, 0.986 (95% CI= 0.978-0.993) per 1.0% increase in grass cover, by 1.024 (95% Cl = 1.011 - 1.036) per I cm increase in grass height, by 1.013 (95% CI = 1.003-1.024) per I% increase in forb cover, and by 1.028 (95% Cl = 1.017- 1.039) per I% increase in medium cover. Our results were similar to other bobcat microhabitat selection studies, where bobcat relocations were associated with understory vegetation, drainages, and rugged terrain. These results identify the adaptability of the species to meet life history requirements in a variety of landscapes, and provide insight to how land use requirements vary within regional and management boundaries