From a Brown to a blue economy in Chile

Peer reviewe

Marine Biodiversity in Juan Fernández and Desventuradas Islands, Chile: Global Endemism Hotspots

22 páginas, 6 tablas, 5 figurasThe Juan Fernández and Desventuradas islands are among the few oceanic islands belonging to Chile. They possess a unique mix of tropical, subtropical, and temperate marine species, and although close to continental South America, elements of the biota have greater affinities with the central and south Pacific owing to the Humboldt Current, which creates a strong biogeographic barrier between these islands and the continent. The Juan Fernández Archipelago has ~700 people, with the major industry being the fishery for the endemic lobster, Jasus frontalis. The Desventuradas Islands are uninhabited except for a small Chilean military garrison on San Félix Island. We compared the marine biodiversity of these islands across multiple taxonomic groups. At San Ambrosio Island (SA), in Desventuradas, the laminarian kelp (Eisenia cokeri), which is limited to Desventuradas in Chile, accounted for >50% of the benthic cover at wave exposed areas, while more sheltered sites were dominated by sea urchin barrens. The benthos at Robinson Crusoe Island (RC), in the Juan Fernández Archipelago, comprised a diverse mix of macroalgae and invertebrates, a number of which are endemic to the region. The biomass of commercially targeted fishes was >2 times higher in remote sites around RC compared to sheltered locations closest to port, and overall biomass was 35% higher around SA compared to RC, likely reflecting fishing effects around RC. The number of endemic fish species was extremely high at both islands, with 87.5% of the species surveyed at RC and 72% at SA consisting of regional endemics. Remarkably, endemics accounted for 99% of the numerical abundance of fishes surveyed at RC and 96% at SA, which is the highest assemblage-level endemism known for any individual marine ecosystem on earth. Our results highlight the uniqueness and global significance of these biodiversity hotspots exposed to very different fishing pressures.ES received funding from Blancpain, Davidoff Cool Water and The National Geographic Society. Oceana provided funding to ATP. CFG was suported by Grant NC120030 from the Millennium Scientific Initiative.Peer reviewe

In search for the sources of plastic marine litter that contaminates the Easter Island Ecoregion

Subtropical gyres are the oceanic regions where plastic litter accumulates over long timescales, exposing surrounding oceanic islands to plastic contamination, with potentially severe consequences on marine life. Islands’ exposure to such contaminants, littered over long distances in marine or terrestrial habitats, is due to the ocean currents that can transport plastic over long ranges. Here, this issue is addressed for the Easter Island ecoregion (EIE). High-resolution ocean circulation models are used with a Lagrangian particle-tracking tool to identify the connectivity patterns of the EIE with industrial fishing areas and coastline regions of the Pacific basin. Connectivity patterns for “virtual” particles either floating (such as buoyant macroplastics) or neutrally-buoyant (smaller microplastics) are investigated. We find that the South American shoreline between 20°S and 40°S, and the fishing zone within international waters off Peru (20°S, 80°W) are associated with the highest probability for debris to reach the EIE, with transit times under 2 years. These regions coincide with the most-densely populated coastal region of Chile and the most-intensely fished region in the South Pacific. The findings offer potential for mitigating plastic contamination reaching the EIE through better upstream waste management. Results also highlight the need for international action plans on this important issue

Diversity of deep-sea fishes of the Easter Island Ecoregion

The Easter Island Ecoregion is in the center of the South Pacific gyre and experiences ultra-oligotrophic conditions that could make it highly susceptible to global change and anthropogenic activities, so it is imperative that these regions are characterized and studied so that conservation and sustainable management strategies can be developed. From the few studies from the region, we know that the coastal areas are relatively depauperate and have relatively high rates of endemism. Here, we present a brief report from the first video observations from this region of the deep-dwelling fishes from ROV exploration of benthic communities from 157 to 281 m and baited drop-camera videos from 150 to 1850 m. We observed a total of 55 fish species from the ROV and Drop-Cam surveys; nine could not be assigned family level or lower, 26 were observed in the ROV surveys, 29 were observed in the Drop-Cam surveys, nine were observed with both survey methods, at least six species are potentially new to science, and nine species were observed at deeper depths than previously reported. These new reports may be indicative of the unique oceanographic conditions in the area and the relative isolation of the communities that have provided opportunity for the evolution of new species and favorable conditions for range expansion. In contrast, these new reports may be indicative of the severe undersampling in the south Pacific at mesopelagic depths. The prevalence of potentially new species suggests that the region likely harbors a wealth of undiscovered biodiversity

Latitudinal thermal gradient effect on the cost of living of the intertidal porcelain crab Petrolisthes granulosus

Species with wide latitudinal distributions are exposed to significant abiotic gradients throughout their geographic range. Thermal gradients are especially important for ectothermic species inhabiting the intertidal zone because they affect their life history traits and fitness. In order to identify the role of latitudinal thermal gradients (specifically the exposition to different thermal maximums) in the cost of living of intertidal crustaceans, we compared specific fitness-related traits, such as body size and reproductive capacity (reproductive output, size at onset of sexual maturity and egg volume) in Petrolisthes granulosus individuals from 3 sites across an extensive latitudinal gradient (covering similar to 50% of its total distributional range): Iquique (20 degrees 16' 12 '' S), Coquimbo (30 degrees 04' 12 '' S) and Concepcion (36 degrees 40' 45 '' S). Furthermore, metabolic rate experiments were conducted to assess the energetic cost associated with high temperatures encountered in P. granulosus habitats. We observed that the southernmost population (Concepcion) had a larger body size and presented larger size classes that did not exist in northerly populations. The latitudinal trend shown by growth and reproductive capacity traits was negatively linked to the associated thermal gradient. However, no differences were found in the relationship between energetic cost (in terms of metabolic rate) and temperatures experienced by P. granulosus. Thus, the patterns of body size and reproductive capacity observed for P. granulosus could not be explained by differences in energetic costs generated by the different thermal regimes of the study sites. Further studies should consider other environmental (e.g. quantity and quality of available food) and/or genetic factors that may be influencing the latitudinal patterns observed for body size and reproductive output in P. granulosus

Effects of herbivores, wave exposure and depth on benthic coral communities of the Easter Island ecoregion

The Easter Island ecoregion includes Rapa Nui (Easter Island; RN), with a human population of ~5600, and the uninhabited Salas y Gómez (SyG). Although the culture and terrestrial ecology of RN have been well studied, we know little about the marine environment of these islands, particularly the interplay among herbivores, algae, and corals, and how coral reef communities differ between islands, by wave energy exposure, and between depths. To address the potential roles of herbivores, wave-energy exposure, and depth on the sessile benthic communities, we examined herbivorous fish biomass, sea urchin (Diadema savignyi) density, and algal and coral cover to identify patterns and relationships among these groups. We found significant differences between islands. For example, turf and macroalgae were nearly absent from SyG, whereas D. savignyi density and Kyphosus sandwicensis biomass were ~28- and ~3-fold greater respectively at SyG. Benthic cover of coral and algae and density of D. savignyi significantly differed among levels of wave exposure, especially between wave-protected stations and semi-exposed and exposed stations. Likewise, community structure significantly differed at protected stations. Concordant patterns between herbivores and algae were observed. Therefore, herbivores and wave energy likely play important roles in structuring these benthic communities, especially for algal groups

From a Brown to a blue economy in Chile

The Chilean brown economy continues to expand, without specific definition of sustainable limits or how to transition to an ecologically balanced future. The article first reviews marine democracy across 42 cases of mining and coastal refinery projects, port developments, aquaculture, factory contamination, wind farms, coal and property development. In depth, an industrial fish factory cluster in Arica, a coastal zone impacted by mining in Chañaral, and fjord aquaculture in Puyuhapi. Using semi structured interviews, and participatory GIS focus groups, it shows the same issues repeat, and how a new participatory marine democratic system might transition the blue economy

Protected areas in Chile: are we managing them?

Abstract Background Human population growth since the mid-1900s has been accompanied by an unsustainable use of natural resources and a corresponding impact on terrestrial and marine biota. In response, most states have established protected areas as tools to decrease biodiversity loss, being Chile one of the signatories of international conservation agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the 2010 Aichi Targets. This study reviews the Chilean protected areas that have been created to date, with an emphasis on the existence and effectiveness of management plans for all terrestrial and marine protected areas. Effectiveness was individually evaluated using two filters: 1) the age of the management plan and 2) the first four steps of the Protected Areas Management Effectiveness (PAME) methodology recommended by the IUCN. Results We show that 84 out of a total of 145 protected areas (PAs), and only five out of a total of 20 marine protected areas (MPAs), have management plans. Only 12% (N = 16) of PAs are effectively managed; while in the marine realm, no MPA has an effective plan. Conclusions Our results show the lack of both the effectiveness of and updates to the management plans for the vast majority of the national territory and raise the following question: is it sustainable to continue adding protected areas to the national system even though it is clear that the existing support is insufficient to meet the minimum requirements for full implementation